简明语言学教程Syntax

Chapter4Syntax

ThewordSyntax,derivedfromGreek,ismadeupof2morphemes:{syn}and{tax}.Theformermeans“_________〞,andthelatter“___________〞.Inlinguistics,

Syntax(句法学)isabranchthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

Toputitsimple,itisthestudyoftheformationofsentences.togethertoarrange4.1Whatissyntax?SinceSentenceisregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecentreofgrammaticalstudy.Differentlinguisticstheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructure.

1.thetraditionalapproach(传统学派)； 2.thestructureapproach(结构主义学派)；

4.thefunctionalapproach(功能学派).3.thegenerativeapproach(生成学派)；AmericanlinguistsA.N.Chomsky(1928-)Category

(P42)referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.4.2Categories(范畴)1.word-levelcategories2.phrasecategories3.sentencesthegenerativeapproach(生成学派)Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc..Morespecifically,itreferstothecategoriesofthenouns,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc..syntaxcategories(句法范畴)classesandfunctionsthedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits：Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories.(traditionally,partsofspeech)1.Howmanywordclassesdoyouknowabout?①traditionalcategories:

n.,v.,adj.,adv.,prep.,conj.,aux.,pronoun….②non-traditionalcategories:

determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语).4.2.1Word-levelcategories3.Whataremajor/minorlexicalcategories?2.Whatarethecriteriatodetermineaword’scategories?①meaning;②inflection;③distribution.Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.①Majorlexicalcategoriesareoftenassumedtobetheheads(中心语/中心成分)aroundwhichphrasesarebuilt:

n.,v.,adj.andprep..②Minorlexicalcategoriesinclude:

determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语)andsoon.(P43)Syntacticunits1.definitionforphrasecategories2.twolevelsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).theprettygirlDetANNPwordlevelphraselevelP45,pleasedrawtreediagramsfortheother3phrases.4.2.2PhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresThewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定词)asinNP,qulifiers(修饰语)asinVPanddegreewords(程度词)asinAPandPP.specifier+head+complement3.thestructureorelementsofphrasesthewordaround

whichaphraseisformed标志语中心语补足语thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsthewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsNP

(Det)+N+(PP)…VP

(Qual)+V+(NP)…AP

(Deg)+A+(PP)…PP

(Deg)+P+(NP)…

4.3PhrasestructurerulesSpecifier+head+complement

phrasestructurerule:

thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase.1.thetallmanwithglassesthatImet2.advisehiminawritingclassthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary3.curiousoftheresultsthatnoonewasthere4.aftertheEnglishclass

Pleasedecidewhetherthefollowinglexicalitemsarephrases.Ifyes,pleaseidentifythephrasecategoriesbyfiguringouttheirheadsandthenanalyzetheirstructure.1.NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)2.VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)3.AP→A(PP)(S)4.PP→P(NP)()()()(()()〕NP

(Det)+N+(PP)…VP

(Qual)+V+(NP)…AP

(Deg)+A+(PP)…PP

(Deg)+P+(NP)…

TheXPrulePhraseStructurerules

specifier+head+complementSpecifierXComplementHeadXPXP→(specifier)X(complement)XPrulespecifierXcomplementheadXPXP→(specifier)X(complement)XtheoryspecifierX(head)complementXPXwordlevelphraselevelintermediatelevela.XP

(specifier)Xb.X

X(complement)(X标杆理论)wordlevelphraselevel请分析：oftenreadstories(并列规那么P48)Coordinationstructures---thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.

boysandgirlsstayorleaveCoordinationrule1.sing,dance,read…orwatchTV2.singsweetsongsordrawbeautifulpictures3.apples,bananas,oranges/singing,dancing4.optimisticandpassionate

Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction.Acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated.Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.

(并列规那么)Coordinationrulespecifier+head+complement标志语中心语补足语4.4.1.specifiers

4.4.2.complements

4.4.3.modifiers

4.4Phraseelements1.Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.2.Thewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead. Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定词Det)asinNP,qulifiers(修饰语Qual)asinVPanddegreewords(程度词Deg)asinAPandPP.3.Theyareattachedtothetoplevelofphrasestructures.(X---theory)Specifiers标志语specifier+head+complementComplementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformation(aboutentitiesandlocations)(whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead).eg.

read;astory;putTheinformation(aboutaword’scomplement)isincluded(inthehead)andtermedsubcategorization

(次范畴化).

Complements补足语specifier+head+complement

Acertainlexicalitemrequiresacertaintypeofcomplement.eg.

appear(vi.),cut(vt.),put(vt.)…Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…Complements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.ThusthereisarevisedXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement*)Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;

asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin

Ibelievedthat

shewasinnocent.

Idoubt

if

shewillcome.Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementarecalled

complementizers(Cs)(补语化成分).Thesentencesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause(补语从句)complementphrases(补语短语)(shortenedasCP)Thereisnolimitonthenumberofembeddedclausesthatcanoccurinasentencesinceeachcomplementcancontainaverbthatitselfpermitsacomplementphrases.MissHebertbelieves

thatshewillwinthegame

whichisorganizedbythenewcommittee

thatarefullyaware

thattheirtargettopromotethedevelopmentoffolkarts

that…XP→(specifier)X(complement*)NotallverbscantakeaCPcomplement.WordsthatcanCParenotverbsalone;As,NsandPscanalltakeCP.

ItemsHeads

Examples

Adjectivesafraid,certain,awareIwasafraid

thatnobodywouldbelieveme.

Nounsfact,claim,beliefShecan’tbelievethefact

thatshewouldfailintheexam.Prep.over,aboutTheyarguedover

whethershehadcometoclass.

Modifiers

specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.Modifiers修饰语ModifierPosition

Example

APprecedestheheadAverycareful

girlPPfollowstheheadopen

withcare

AdvPprecedesorfollowstheheadread

carefully;carefully

read

XP→(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)XP→(specifier)X(complement*)XP→(specifier)X(complement)Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrase:

1.opentheboxwithcare2.astoryaboutasentimentalgirlNP

(Det)+NNP

(Spec)+N

VDetNPNopentheboxwithcareVPPPNPhead+complement+modifierPP

P+(NP)PP

P+(Complement)

VP

V+(NP)+(PP)

VPV+(Complement)+(Mod)

DetNPDetANastoryaboutasentimentalgirlPPNPNPNPNP(Spec)+〔Mod〕+NPPP+(Complement)specifier+head+complement1.陈述句2.疑问句〔1〕带有助动词(overtInflform)的一般疑问句〔2〕不带有助动词的一般疑问句〔3〕特殊疑问句4.5Sentences(theSrule)Sentencepatterns:Det

NVDetNAboyfoundtheevidenceTraditionally:S→NPVPSNP(subject)VP(predicate)NPItassumesthatasentencedoesnothaveaninternalstructure:ahead,acomplementandaspecifier.4.5Sentences(theSrule)

Manylinguistsnowadays,however,believethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflection(dubbed‘Infl’屈折变化)isanabstract

categoryastheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.Present:S→NPInflVPInflP(=S)NPVPInflthesubject,asspecifierasheadascomplementInflP(=S)DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidencePstInflNPVPNPheadInflrealizedbyatenselabelDetNVDetNAboywillfindtheevidenceInflP(=S)NPVPNPInflheadInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryDidtheboyfindtheevidence?Whatwillhedo?Atransformationisaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Itcanbeinversion(倒置),insertion(插入)orotherkindsofmovement.4.6Transformations(转换)4.6.1Auxiliarymovement(inversion)

Doinsertion4.6.3Deepstructure&surfacestructure4.6.4Wh-movementInflP(=S)NPVPInflthesubject,asspecifierasheadascomplementAboywillfindtheevidence.Jimcanswimverywell.Willthetrainarrive?4.6.1Auxiliarymovement〔助动词〕CTheyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInfl

InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.complementizer(补语化成分)CPawordwhichintroducethesentencecomplement.InversionMoveInfltoC.(P54)Willthetrainarrive?Ccomplementclause(=S)complementphrases(CP)matrixclause(主句)

Ibelievedthat

shewasinnocent.

DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInflCCPAtrans-formation

isaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrasebydrawingatreediagramforit:Shouldthestudentreporttheincident?CCPwillDetNVThetrainearriveNPVPSInflInflTheyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.(Doinsertionisneeded)Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).BirdsflySNPInflVPDobirdsfly?NVdoDoinsertion---InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.doCCPInfle4.6.2DoinsertionConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:

Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Consideronemoresentence:

Flyingplanescanbedangerous.

1)Ifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivity;2)

Planesthatareflyingaredangerous.Structurallysimilar/samesentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.4.6.3Deepstructure&surfacestructure〔深层结构〕〔表层结构〕=sb.pleasesJohn=Johnpleasessb.Deepstructure(orD-structure)

areformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorization(次范畴化)properties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.eg.

Thedogs(thathekeeps)

bites.

Thedogs(hekeepswhat)bites.Surfacestructure(orS-structure)

isthefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.surfacestructure:itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.CCPwillDetNVThetrainearriveNPVPSInflInflWillthetrainarrive?DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInflEx.8P66Ex.7P65TheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammarTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplementsConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:

Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?

Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:

Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.deepstructures4.6.4Wh-movementsurfacestructuresWh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguage

canyou

speak

?What

canyou

talkabout

?transformationinversioninversionwhmovementwhmovementLet’sanalyzethefollowingphrase:Whatshouldthestudentreport?Treediagram?Wh-movement---MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)1.Whphraseascomplementofaverborpreposition;2.Whphraseasasubject;(P60)3.Whmovementinrelativeclauses.(P61)Whatwillyoutalkabout?Whowonthegame?youwilltalkaboutWhatThedog(thathekeeps)bites.Thedog(hekeepswhat)bites.CCPDetNNVNVThedoghekeepswhatbitesCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflDeepstructureWh-movement---Moveawhphrasetothespecifier

positionunderCP.DetNNNVNVThedogthathekeepsebitesSurfacestructureCCPCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflNPwhmovementthestudent