社交和情感技能-英

OECDEducationWorkingPapersNo.304Socialandemotionalskills:Mykolas

Steponavičius,Catharina

Gress-Wright,Adriano

LinzariniLatestevidenceonteachabilityandimpactonlifeoutcomes/10.1787/ba34f086-enOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentEDU/WKP(2023)19UnclassifiedEnglish-Or.English14November2023DIRECTORATEFOREDUCATIONANDSKILLSCancels&replacesthesamedocumentof

13November

2023Social

andemotionalskills:Latest

evidenceonteachabilityand

impacton

life

outcomesOECDEducationWorkingPaperNo.304ByMykolasSteponavičius,CatharinaGress-Wright

andAdrianoLinzarini,OECD.Thisworkingpaperhasbeenauthorisedby

AndreasSchleicher,Director

of

theDirectorateforEducationandSkills,OECDAdrianoLinzarini

Adriano.linzarini@Catharina

Gress-Wright,c.gress.wright@MykolasSteponavičius,mykolassteponavicius@JT03531668Thisdocument,

aswell

as

any

dataand

mapincluded

herein,

are

without

prejudicetothe

statusof

or

sovereignty

over

anyterritory,

tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundariesandtothenameof

anyterritory,cityor

area.2

EDU/WKP(2023)19AcknowledgementsTheauthorswouldliketo

thankSophieBarnes,ChristopherJ.Soto,AynurGul

SahinandAlenaFridfortheirvaluablereviews

ofthis

workingpaper.The

authors

would

also

like

to

thank

the

following

experts

for

their

valuable

input

at

earlierstages

of

the

literature

review

process:

Arjun

Bahadur,

Sophie

Barnes,

Valeria

Cavioni,Laurence

Devilliers,

Kit-Tai

Hau,

Clemens

Lechner,

Cat

Lunjevich,

Andrea

Maccarini,RicardoPrimi,BeatriceRammstedt,IngridSchoonandChristopherJ.Soto.Editingandadministrative

supportwasprovidedbyJessicaBouton.The

development

of

the

working

paper

was

guided

by

Andreas

Schleicher

and

TiaLoukkola.

This

is

the

first

important

deliverable

of

the

Innovative

approaches

to

measuringsocialandemotionalskillsproject,managedbyNoémieLeDonné.This

working

paper

was

developed

under

the

oversight

of

the

OECD’s

Centre

forEducationalResearchandInnovation

(CERI)GoverningBoard.Authors’contributions

bysectionareasfollows:•••Section1–MykolasSteponavičiusSection2

–AdrianoLinzariniSection

3

–

Catharina

Gress-Wright

with

the

support

of

Daniel

Catarino

da

Silva

inpreparingtheboxeson

specificsocialandemotionallearninginterventions.••Section4–CatharinaGress-WrightSection

5–Mykolas

Steponavičius

withthe

support

ofDaniel

Catarino

da

Silva

incompiling

evidenceonseveralskills••Section6–AdrianoLinzariniandMykolasSteponavičiusSection7–MykolasSteponavičius.UnclassifiedEDU/WKP(2023)19

3AbstractEducation

systems

around

the

world

increasingly

recognise

that

social

and

emotional

skills(SES)

are

essential

for

students

and

societies

alike.

The

OECD

has

worked

towardsmeasuring

and

building

the

evidence

base

on

SES

by

developing,

implementing

andanalysing

the

findings

of

the

OECD

Survey

on

Social

and

Emotional

Skills

(SSES).

Theaim

of

this

working

paper

is

to

clarify

several

conceptual

and

empirical

issues

related

toSES

as

part

of

the

Innovativeapproaches

to

measuring

social

and

emotionalskillsproject,which

aims

to

complement

the

skill

measures

based

on

self-reports

in

SSES

with

moredirect

assessments.

Firstly,

the

paper

takes

a

closer

look

at

how

the

SSES

framework

forSES

was

created,

discusses

and

responds

to

criticisms,

such

as

basing

the

framework

ontheBigFivemodelof

personality.Secondly,thepaperaddressesthequestionsofwhetherSES

are

generally

teachable

and

how

SES

compare

to

each

other

in

terms

of

teachability.Thirdly,

it

presents

a

compilation

of

recent

evidence

on

the

relationship

between

SES

andkey

life

outcomes.

Finally,

the

paper

aims

to

bridge

the

conceptual

gap

between

differentstrands

of

literature

by

updating

the

general

definition

of

SES,

pointing

out

discrepanciesindefinitionsofspecificskillsandidentifyingteachableskillswithhighpredictivevalue.RésuméLes

compétences

sociales

et

émotionnelles

(CSE)

sont

de

plus

en

plus

reconnues

par

lessystèmes

éducatifs

dans

le

monde

comme

étant

essentielles

pour

les

élèves

et

la

société.L'OCDE

a

réalisé

un

premier

travail

considérable

pour

mesurer

ces

compétences

et

enconstituer

une

base

de

données,

grâce

à

l'Enquête

sur

les

Compétences

Sociales

etÉmotionnelles

(le

projet

Survey

on

Social

and

Emotional

Skills

–

SSES).

Ce

document

detravail

a

pour

but

de

clarifier

plusieurs

questions

conceptuelles

et

empiriques

afin

depréparerlenouveau

projet

del’OCDEsur

ces

compétences,

intitulé

ApprochesInnovantespour

la

Mesure

des

Compétences

Sociales

et

Émotionnelles,

qui

vise

à

compléter

lesmesures

auto-évaluatives

du

SSES

par

des

méthodes

plus

directes

d’évaluations.Premièrement,

ce

document

réexamine

le

cadre

conceptuel

du

projet

SSES.

Il

discute

etrépond

aux

principales

critiques,

telles

que

le

fait

qu’il

soit

basé

sur

un

modèle

de

lapersonnalité

(modèle

du

Big

Five).

Deuxièmement,

le

document

présente

une

revue

delittérature

récente

sur

la

question

de

savoir

si

les

CSE

sont

généralement

enseignables,

etcomment

les

CSE

se

comparent

les

uns

aux

autres

en

termes

d'enseignabilité.Troisièmement,

il

présente

une

compilation

de

données

récentes

sur

la

relation

entre

lesCSE

et

différentes

variables

d'intérêt

(qualité

de

vie,

réussite

académique,

vieprofessionnelle,

et

autres

facteurs

sociétaux).

Enfin,

le

document

vise

à

combler

le

fosséconceptuel

entre

les

différents

courants

de

la

littérature

en

actualisant

la

définition

des

CSE,en

soulignant

les

divergences

dans

les

définitions

des

compétences

spécifiques,

et

enidentifiant

les

compétences

enseignables

ayant

un

lien

important

avec

les

variablesd'intérêt.Unclassified4

EDU/WKP(2023)19TableofcontentsAcknowledgements

2Abstract

3Résumé

3Glossary

61.Introduction

82.Revisiting

theconceptualfoundationsof

socialandemotionalskills

92.1.Definitionofsocialandemotionalskills

92.2.TheBigFivemodelof

personality–

aframework

forsocialandemotionalskills?

92.3.TheSSES

framework:An

operationalratherthan

aconceptualframework?

152.4.The

jingle-janglefallacy:Arewe

talkingaboutthesameconcepts?

172.5.Conclusion:Keypoints172.6.Endnotes183.Generalteachabilityanddevelopmentof

socialandemotionalskills183.1.Introduction183.2.Plasticity,

malleabilityandteachability

193.3.Howdoskill,

traitandbrainplasticityshift

overthelifespan?

213.4.Arethere“sensitiveperiods”for

skilldevelopment?

243.5.Keyfactorsthatinfluencemalleability

253.6.Cansocialandemotional

skillsbetaught?

273.7.Limitationsof

thisreview

323.8.KeyfactorsthatinfluenceteachabilityandSELeffectiveness

323.9.Whataboutequity?Do

teachability

orimpactvaryacrossgroups?

353.10.Conclusion:Keypoints374.Teachability

ofindividualsocialandemotionalskills

384.1.Introduction384.2.Aresomeskillsmoreteachablethanothers?

384.3.Teachability

ofindividualskillsaccording

to

intervention

research

394.4.Discussionofindividualskillteachability

andevidencecoherence

454.5.Limitationsof

thisreview

554.6.Conclusion:Evidencegapsandnextsteps

555.Socialand

emotionalskills:thekeytoasuccessfulandfulfillinglife?

575.1.Methodology

575.2.Findings

585.3.Labourmarketoutcomes625.4.Subjectivelabourmarketoutcomes

655.5.Qualityoflifeoutcomes665.6.Societaloutcomes

685.7.Lifesuccessandsocialandemotionalskills:whichcomesfirst?

705.8.Conclusion

716.Updated

OECDSESdefinitions

726.1.Updateddefinitionofsocialandemotionalskills

72UnclassifiedEDU/WKP(2023)19

57.Conclusion

78AnnexA

115AnnexB

119AnnexC

125AnnexD

135FIGURESFigure1.TheSSESframeworkbasedontheBigFivemodelof

personalityFigure2:

Thenestedconceptsofplasticity,malleabilityandteachability1020TABLESTable1.Developmentof

theSSES

frameworkTable2.ListofSESreviewedinthisworkingpaper1516Table3.Meta-analyticfindingson

SES’teachabilityandsocialandemotionaloutcomes,aseffectsizeTable4.Interventionimpacts

onCASELskilldomains,aseffectsizeormainresultTable5.Evidencemapfor

teachabilityofindividualsocialandemotionalskillsbasedoninterventionevaluationsTable6:

Literatureon

thepredictivevalueofsocialandemotionalskillsTable7:

SocialandemotionalskillswiththehighestpredictivevalueTable8.Highlyteachableskillswithhigh

predictivevalue283141585974Table9.Skillswithdivergingdefinitionsandlackofevidence76Table10:KeySELevaluationtermsandtheircodedSSESskillmatchTable11:Overviewofrecentmeta-analysesofuniversalschoolbasedSELinterventions(2015-2022)Table12:DetailedversionofTable5withcorrespondingExploreSELterms,countriesofevaluationand

recommendedSELprogrammesTable13.Definitionof

socialandemotionalskillsinthe

outcomeresearchTable14.Predictivevalueofallsocialandemotionalskills117119125132135Unclassified6

EDU/WKP(2023)19GlossaryAcronyms•••••••••••16PF:SixteenPersonalityFactorQuestionnaireAB5C:AbridgedBig

Five-DimensionalCircumplexBESSI:

Behavioral,Emotional,andSocialSkillsInventoryBFI:BigFiveInventoryCASEL:CollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearningNEO-PI:

RevisedNEOPersonalityInventorySEL:SocialandEmotionalLearningSES:SocialandEmotionalSkillsSSES:SurveyonSocialandEmotionalSkillsUSB:UniversalSchool-BasedinterventionWEIRD:Western,Educated,Industrialised,RichandDemocratic[societies]Keyterms••Behavioural

tendency

–

construct

related

to

an

individual's

habitual

tendency

to

actin

a

particular

manner

most

of

the

time,

as

opposed

to

functional

capability

(Sotoetal.,

2022[1]).

Behavioural

tendencies

relate

topersonality

traits

and

are

referredtoastypicalbehaviour.Construct

–

idea

or

theory

containing

various

conceptual

elements.

It

is

a“conceptual

toolused

to

facilitate

understanding

ofhuman

behaviour”(Britannica,2023[2]).

In

this

working

paper,

this

term

encompasses

concepts

such

as

skills,personalitytraits,orcompetencies.••••Domains

–

higher-order

constituents

in

social

and

emotional

skills

/

personalitytaxonomies

(e.g.

conscientiousness

or

openness

to

experience

in

the

Big

Fivemodel).

Sometimesreferredtoas

dimensionsintheliterature.Emic

approach

–

approach

to

the

study

of

a

particular

language

or

culture

thatemphasises

culture-specific

characteristics

and

considers

the

unique

aspects

of

eachculture.Etic

approach

–

approach

to

the

study

of

a

particular

language

or

culture

thatfocuses

on

universal

aspects

that

can

be

applied

across

cultures

and

aims

to

identifycore

similaritiesinhumanbehaviour.Facets

or

sub-domains

–

lower-order

constituent

sub-dimensions

of

the

Big

Fiveand

other

personality

taxonomies.

The

facet-level

of

these

frameworks

iscomparable

to

the

skills

level

of

SES’

taxonomies.

These

terms

are

usedinterchangeably

for

both

personality

and

SES

taxonomies

(e.g.

in

the

SSESframework,

intellectualcuriosityisafacet

of

opennesstoexperience).UnclassifiedEDU/WKP(2023)19

7••Functional

capability

–

construct

related

to

an

individual’s

capacity

to

act

in

aparticular

manner

in

a

relevant

situation

as

opposed

to

a

behavioural

tendency

(Sotoetal.,

2022[1]).

Functional

capabilities

relate

to

SES

and

tostates

and

are

referredtoasmaximalbehaviour.Malleability

–

susceptibility

to

any

environmental

influence,

whether

intentional

orunintentional.••Maximalbehaviour

–see“functionalcapability”.Outcome

research

–

literature

looking

at

the

predictive

value

of

social

andemotionalskills.••Plasticity

–

susceptibility

to

change,

whether

biological

and

intrinsic

orenvironmentalandextrinsic.Predictive

value

–

proven

empirical

relationship

between

SES

and

key

lifeoutcomes,

such

as

academic,

labour

market,

quality

of

life

and

societal

outcomes(discussed

in

moredetailinTable

6).••Social

and

emotional

learning

(SEL)

literature

–

literature

looking

at

theteachability

ofsocialandemotionalskillsthrough

deliberateinterventions.Social

and

emotional

skills

(the

OECD

2015

definition)

–

“individualcharacteristics

that

(a)

originate

in

the

reciprocal

interaction

between

biologicalpredispositions

and

environmental

factors;

(b)

are

manifested

in

consistent

patternsof

thoughts,

feelings

and

behaviours;

(c)

continue

to

develop

through

formal

andinformal

learning

experiences;

and

(d)

influence

important

socio-economicoutcomes

throughout

the

individual’s

life”

(De

Fruyt,

Wille

and

John,

2015,p.279[3]).•Social

and

emotional

skills

(the

updated

definition

proposed

by

this

paper)

–individual

characteristics

that

are:

a)

subject

to

developmental

change;

b)

teachable/

responsive

to

intervention;

c)

predictive

of

key

life

outcomes;

d)

dependent

onsituational

factors

(e.g.

task

context,

fatigue);

e)

manifested

in

patterns

of

thoughts,feelings

and

behaviours;

f)

manifested

in

maximal

behaviour

more

than

typicalbehaviour

(and

therefore

distinct

from

personality

traits);

g)

conceptually

distinctfrom

simple

cognitive

processes

(e.g.

visual

processing,

executive

function)

andacademicskills(e.g.literacy,numeracy).••SSES

framework

for

social

and

emotional

skills

(referred

throughout

the

paper

asSSES

framework)

–

a

framework

that

includes

15

social

and

emotional

skillsdevelopedforandusedin

theOECDSSES.States

–

“characteristic

patterns

of

thinking,

feeling,

and

behaving

in

a

concretesituation

at

a

specific

moment

in

time”

(Schmitt

and

Blum,

2020,

p.5206

).

States[4]are

related

to

maximal

behaviour,

which

is

measured

in

standardised,

high-effortsituations,

as

opposed

to

traits

(Soto,

Napolitano

and

Roberts,

2021

).

See

also[5]“functionalcapability”.••Teachability–susceptibilitytodeliberate

interventionineducation

settings.Traits

–

“characteristic

patterns

of

thinking,

feeling,

and

behaving

that

generaliseacross

similar

situations,

differ

systematically

between

individuals,

and

remainrather

stable

across

time”

(Schmitt

and

Blum,

2020,

p.5206

).

Traits

represent[4]typical

behaviour,

which

is

averaged

over

time,

as

opposed

to

states

(Soto,NapolitanoandRoberts,2021

).Seealso“behaviouraltendency”.[5]Unclassified8

EDU/WKP(2023)19•Typicalbehaviour

–see“behaviouraltendency”.1.

IntroductionEducation

systems

around

the

world

increasingly

recognise

that

social

and

emotional

skills(SES)

are

essential

for

students

and

societies

alike.

As

the

curriculum

focus

shifted

fromimparting

knowledge

to

teaching

skills,

cognitive

abilities

received

more

attention

fromeducators

and

policy

makers.

That

is

changing

as

SES

turn

out

to

be

as

important

and,

insome

cases,

even

more

important

than

cognitive

abilities

in

predicting

key

life

outcomes(OECD,

2015

).

This

change

in

priorities

is

evidenced

by

SES

becoming

part

of

school[6]curricula

and

assessment

in

many

education

systems.

The

CORE's

School

QualityImprovement

System

in

California

(West

etal.,

2018

)

and

the

Happiness

Curriculum

in[7]India

(Care

et

al.,

2020

)

as

well

as

the

extensive

participation

of

cities

in

the

OECD[8]Survey

on

Social

and

Emotional

Skills

(SSES)

exemplify

how

SES

are

becoming

central

toeducationagendasaround

theworld.The

OECD

has

done

substantial

work

in

measuring

and

building

the

evidence

base

on

SESthrough

the

design

and

implementation

of

SSES

as

well

as

the

analysis

of

SSES

findings.The

first

round

of

the

survey

showed

that

SES

are

significantly

related

with

students’academic

success,

career

expectations

and

well-being,

yet

they

tend

to

be

unevenlydistributed

across

gender

and

socio-economic

background

(OECD,

2021

).

In

addition,[9]the

OECD

presented

some

evidence

that

SES

are

malleable

and

can

be

learned(Chernyshenko,

Kankaraš

and

Drasgow,

2018[10]).

Results

of

the

second

round

of

thesurveyareonthewayandpromiseto

furtherstrengthentheknowledgeabout

SES.Nevertheless,

many

conceptual

and

empirical

issues

require

clarification,

including

thejustificationforbasingthe

SSESframeworkforSESon

theBigFivemodelof

personalityand

the

comprehensiveness

of

the

SSES

framework.

Moreover,

given

the

recent

expansionof

the

research

field,

the

empirical

evidence

on

teachability

and

relation

to

key

lifeoutcomes

needs

to

be

updated

and

clarified.

In

particular,

the

review

is

enriched

byconsidering

evidence

on

five

new

skills

that

are

not

part

of

the

SSES

framework.Throughout

the

paper,

particular

attention

is

dedicated

to

limiting

the

conceptual

confusioncaused

bythe

multitude

ofterms

to

describe

SES

(referredtoas

the

jingle-jangle

fallacy).By

addressing

these

issues,

this

paper

seeks

to

inform

the

development

of

innovativeassessment

tools

to

measure

SES

in

the

next

phases

of

the

Innovative

approaches

tomeasuringsocialandemotionalskills

project.The

paper

is

structured

in

the

following

way.

Section

Error!

Reference

source

not

found.

introduces

the

definition

of

social

and

emotional

skills,

takes

a

closer

look

at

how

the

OECDSSES

framework

was

created,

discusses

criticisms

and

outlines

how

some

of

theselimitations

are

addressed

in

the

paper.

Section2

addresses

the

question

of

whether

SES

aregenerally

teachable,

while

Section

4

outlines

how

SES

compare

to

each

other

in

terms

ofteachability.

Section

5

presents

a

compilation

of

recent

evidence

on

the

relationshipbetween

SES

and

key

academic,

labour

market,

quality

of

life

and

societal

outcomes.Section

6

aims

to

bridge

the

conceptual

gap

between

different

strands

of

literature

reviewedin

this

paper

by

updating

the

general

definition

of

SES,

pointing

out

discrepancies

in

skilldefinitions.Finally,Section7identifiesteachableskillswithhighpredictivevalue.UnclassifiedEDU/WKP(2023)19

92.

RevisitingtheconceptualfoundationsofsocialandemotionalskillsTo

consolidate

the

conceptual

basis

for

the

Innovative

approaches

to

measuring

social

andemotional

skills

project,

it

is

necessary

torevisit

the

theoretical

work

forming

the

basis

ofthe

SSESframework(Chernyshenko,

Kankaraš

and

Drasgow,

2018[10]).Tothis

end,

threemajor

limitations

are

identified

and

can

serve

as

a

starting

point

for

this

revision.

A

firstshortcoming

of

the

SSES

framework

concerns

the

way

in

which

it

has

been

constructed,i.e.,

based

on

models

of

personality

traits

(and

specifically

on

the

Big

Five

model).

Asecond

criticism

relates

to

the

selection

process

of

the

skills

included

in

the

SSESframework,

driven

by

an

operational

more

than

a

conceptual

approach.

A

third

limitationconcerns

a

wider

problem

in

the

field

of

SES,

which

is

the

general

lack

of

clear

terminologyand

definitions.

This

section

presents

these

limitations

and

describes

how

they

areaddressed

throughout

the

Innovative

approaches

to

measuring

social

and

emotional

skillsproject.2.1.

Definitionofsocialand

emotionalskillsBefore

discussing

these

limitations,

it

is

essential

to

clearly

define

social

and

emotionalskills

as

the

literature

“is

populated

by

a

confusing

array

of

terms,

definitions,

andtaxonomies”

(Soto

et

al.,

2022,

p.26[11]).

Other

common

terms

used

to

refer

to

SES

include21st-century

competencies,

employability

skills,

character

strengths,

non-cognitive

skills,personality

traits,

soft

skills,

qualities,

transformative

skills

and

lifelong

learning

skills(Jones

and

Doolittle,

2017[12]).

To

guide

the

review

on

the

predictive

value

and

teachabilityof

SES,

this

paper

adopts

the

following

operational

definition

of

social

and

emotional

skills(referred

to

as

the

SSES

definition):

“individual

characteristics

that

(a)

originate

in

thereciprocal

interaction

between

biological

predispositions

and

environmental

factors;

(b)

aremanifested

in

consistent

patterns

of

thoughts,

feelings

and

behaviours;

(c)

continue

todevelop

through

formal

and

informal

learning

experiences;

and

(d)

influence

importantsocioeconomic

outcomes

throughout

the

individual’s

life”

(De

Fruyt,

Wille

and

John,

2015,p.279

).

Basedon

the

reviewed

literature,thisdefinitionwillbeupdated

at

the

endofthe[3]paper.2.2.

TheBigFivemodelofpersonality

–

aframeworkforsocialandemotionalskills?Following

an

extensive

literature

review,

the

Five-factor

model

of

personality

(hereunderreferred

to

as

the

Big

Five

model)

was

selected

as

the

overarching

structure

of

the

SSESframework

(Figure1)

because

it

offers

a

strong

empirical

foundation,

a

comprehensive

andparsimonious

summary

of

individualdifferences

in

SES,has

a

high

predictive

powerofitsdomains

and

individual

skills,

encompasses

skills

that

are

both

malleable

and

temporallystable,

and

because

correlations

between

Big

Five

domains

and

21st

century

skills

wereempirically

validated

(Chernyshenko,

Kankaraš

and

Drasgow,

2018[10]).

Organising

SESinto

the

five

overarching

categories

of

this

framework

could

thus

provide

a

concise

yetcomprehensive

conceptualisation

of

the

different

skills

and

evidence

for

their

validity.However,

the

question

of

whether

this

framework,

originally

developed

as

a

personalitytrait

framework,

can

be

used

as

a

starting

point

for

organising

SES

remains

controversialfor

several

reasons.

The

following

parts

examine

the

criticisms,

limitations,

and

argumentsinfavourofusingtheBigFiveasaframework

forSES.Unclassified10

EDU/WKP(2023)19Figure1.The

SSESframeworkbasedontheBigFive

modelofpersonalitySource:adaptedfrom(OECD,2021

).[9]2.2.1.

Personalitytraitsand

socialandemotionalskills–

oneframeworktobindthemall?Personality

traits

are

enduring

patterns

of

thoughts,

feelings,

and

behaviours

thatdistinguish

individuals

from

each

other.

While

they

are

often

seen

as

descriptive

summariesof

behaviour,

they

are

better

understood

as

factors

that

can

impact

life

outcomes

byinfluencing

how

individuals

think,

feel,

and

behave,

particularly

in

ambiguous

or

novelsituations(CieciuchandStrus,2021[13]).The

Big

Five

model

stems

from

a

synthesis

of

multiple

research

streams

and

data-drivenapproaches

based

on

the

study

of

vocabulary

(Digman,

1990[14];

McCrae

and

Costa

Jr,1997[15];

Norman,

1963[16]).

Its

primary

objective

is

to

uncover

the

overarching

structure

ofthe

main

domains

that

constitute

human

personality.

It

organises

personality

traits

into

fivemajordomains:Conscientiousness/Taskperformance,

Extraversion/Engagingwithothers,Agreeableness/Collaboration

with

others,

Neuroticism/Emotion

regulation,

and

Opennessto

experience/Open-mindedness

(Schoon,

2021[17]).

Each

of

these

domains

are