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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10693
TacklingGenderDiscriminatoryInheritanceLawPrivately
LessonsfromaSurveyExperimentinTunisia
ChristinaSarahHauser
WORLDBANKGROUP
MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion
OfficeoftheChiefEconomist
February2024
PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10693
Abstract
Whenreformofgenderdiscriminatorylawfails,indi-vidualactioncanofferasecond-bestsolution.AsmostMuslim-majoritycountries,TunisiaappliesIslamicinher-itancelaw,systematicallyfavoringsonsoverdaughters.Bymakinggiftstotheirdaughter,parentscanprivatelyattenuategenderdiscriminationininheritance.Thisstudyinvestigatestowhatextentgiftingcanrepresentanalterna-tivetolegalreformandforwhom.Withinarandomizedexperiment,thisstudytestswhetherprovidinginformationonpublicsupportforinheritancelawreformand/orthepossibilitytomakeagifttoone’sdaughterhasacausalimpactonindividualattitudestowardswomen’srightto
inheritance.Theoverallevidenceontheeffectivenessoftheproposedinformationaltreatmentstoencouragegift-ingismixed.However,approvalofgiftingdaughtersishigh—especiallyamongthewealthy.Menaremorelikelytogiftthanwomen.Bycontrast,demandforlegalreformissignificantlyhigheramongwomenandindividualswithloweducationalattainment.Thefindingsthussuggestthatgiftingindeedrepresentsanalternativetolegalreform;butmostlyforarelativelywell-offsubsetofthepopulation,leavingtheagencytothetraditionallymaleheadofthefamily.
ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheChiefEconomist,MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat
/prwp.The
authormaybecontactedatchristina.hauser@eui.euorchristina.sarah.hauser@.
ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam
TacklingGenderDiscriminatoryInheritanceLaw
Privately:LessonsfromaSurveyExperimentinTunisia
ChristinaSarahHauser*
JELclassification:J16,N37,D31,K37
Keywords:genderdiscrimination,inheritance,Islamiclaw,informationexperiment
*
DepartmentofEconomics,EuropeanUniversityInstitute(EUI),ViadelleFontanelle18,50014Fiesole,Italy.Email:christina.hauser@eui.eu.IgratefullyacknowledgethefinancialandanalyticalsupportfromtheOfficeoftheChiefEconomistfortheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MNACE;TTLs:NellyElmallakhandNazmulChaudhury)undertheregionalLaborandGenderResearchProgramsoftheWorldBank.ThisresearchalsobenefitedfromaLEAP(LaboratoryforEffectiveAnti-PolicyAction)StudentGrantandanEarlyStageResearchGrantoftheEuropeanUniversityInstitute.IRBapprovalwasobtainedfromtheEthicsCommitteeoftheEuropeanUniversityInstituteinDecember2022.Thestudywaspre-registeredattheAEARCTregistryon9January2023(AEARCTR-0010343).IamindebtedtoOne-to-OneforResearchandPollingforsuperbdatacollectionandtoFriedrichEbertStiftungforhostingmeduringmyresearchstayinTunis.IwishtothankJihenAbbes,SuleAlan,HarounBenYoussef,TomCrossley,SouleimaDhaya,LeylaHassen,ZeinebMazouz,YoussefMeddeb,ImenMezlini,DietlindStolle,AlessandroTarozzi,AbirTayariandWeiweiZhengforhelpfulcommentsandadvice.Anymistakesaremyown.
2
1Introduction
Thereisalargeconsensusintheliteraturethatfemaleempowermentimproveswomen’sandchildren’soutcomesandplaysapositiveroleineconomicdevelopmentoverall(e.g.
Duflo,
2003
and
Allendorf,
2007
).WomenlivingintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA)regionscorelowestworldwideonmostmeasuresofeconomicempowerment,includingaccesstopropertyownership(
WorldEconomicForum,
2023
).Intheregion,inheritancehashis-toricallybeentheprimarywaythroughwhichwomenaccesspropertyanditplaysadecisiveroleinallowingwomentoparticipateintheeconomy,e.g.byenablingthemtostarttheirownbusinesses(
IFC
,
2017
).Propertyownershipcaninsurewomenagainstunforeseenmis-fortunesandincreasetheirbargainingpowerwithinthehousehold.However,mostMENAcountriesapplyIslamicinheritancelaw,whichsystematicallyfavorssonsoverdaughters.Thebequestforeseenforanindividual’schildrenissplitunevenlybygender:asonalwaysreceivestwicetheshareofadaughter.Thisarrangementiscommonlyjustifiedwithaman’sobligationtotakecareofhiswife,daughterorsister.SocialrealityintheMENAregion,however,ischanging.InTunisia,womenrepresentmorethanhalfofthecollegestudentpop-ulation(
WorldBank,
2022b
)andmarryincreasinglylateornotatall(
Assaadetal.,
2017
).The“gendergap”ineducationhasreversed:inthemostrecentpanelsurvey,71percentofTunisianwomenwereaseducatedasorevenmorehighlyeducatedthantheirhusbands
(Assaadetal.,
2017
).Eventhoughfemalelabormarketparticipationremainsrelativelylow,householdsurveyssuggestthatwomencontributeasignificantsharetohouseholdbudgets
(ERF
,
2014
).Thepersistenceofgenderdiscriminatoryinheritancelawhasbeenassociatedwithwomen’sprecarizationnotonlyinTunisia,butalsoinMoroccoandEgypt,andpar-ticularlywhenitcomestolandbequests:ifnotentirelyleftout,womentendtoreceivethe
leastfertilelands(Tanner,
2020;
ConseilNationaldesDroitsdel’Homme,
2015;
Khodary,
2018
).GenderdiscriminationininheritanceisthusanurgentbutsofarunderstudiedpolicyissueintheMENAregionandbeyond.
TunisiawasthefirstMENAcountrywherealargesocialmovementdemandedgenderequalinheritancelaw.Thereformproposalreceivedpresidentialsupportin2018,butitneverreachedaparliamentaryvote.Thelegalstatusquoremainsunchangedandtheintroductionofagenderequalinheritancelawseemsincreasinglyunlikely.Butlegalreformmaynotbetheonlywaytoweakengenderdiscriminationininheritance.TheTunisianCodeonPersonalStatusallowsparentstomakegiftstoapersonoftheirchoice.Ifparentsgift
assets,propertyorlandtotheirdaughterwhilealive,theremainingwealthissplitaccording
3
toIslamicinheritancelawaftertheirdeath-butthegenderdiscriminationinthefinalwealthallocationisattenuated.Collectingnovelsurveydata,Ifirstprovidecorrelationalanddescriptiveevidencetoassesstowhatextentgiftingrepresentsasecond-bestalternativetolegalreform.Second,withinasurveyexperimentItestwhetherprovidinginformationonpublicsupportforinheritancelawreformand/orthepossibilitytogiftone’sdaughterhasacausalimpactonattitudesregardingwomen’sinheritance.
TheprimarydatanecessaryforansweringtheseresearchquestionswascollectedinTunisiabetweenFebruaryandApril2023viathephone.ThetotalsamplesizeinthefirstsurveyroundwasN=1,505.Respondentswererandomlyallocatedtocontrol(C),ortotwodifferenttreatmentarmswheretheyreceivedinformationongifting(T1)orinforma-tiononpublicreformsupportandgifting(T2).ThesecondtreatmentT2includedabeliefcorrection:respondentsweretoldwhethertheyunderestimated,overestimatedorcorrectlyguessedpublicsupportfortheintroductionofgenderequalinheritancelaw.Itesttheeffectoftheprovidedinformationonasetofinheritance-relatedgenderattitudes,whicharemea-suredinafirstendlinedirectlyfollowingthetreatmentandinasecondendlineaboutfourweekslater.Ihypothesizedthatbothtreatmentswouldincreaserespondents’awarenessofgenderdiscriminationininheritanceandshouldthusleadtomoregenderequalattitudes.Yet,Iconjecturedthatreformsupportmaydecreaseinthetreatmentgroupsifgiftingisviewedasasubstituteforlegalreform.Moreover,assumingthattheperceivedsocialnormfunctionsasaconstraintonindividuals’genderattitudes,thebeliefcorrectioninT2wasexpectedtorendertheviewsofrespondentswhounderestimatepublicreformsupportmore
genderprogressive.
Theobservedtreatmenteffectsaremixed:T1significantlyincreasesrespondents’like-lihoodtofavoragenderequalbequestallocation.Treatmenteffectsontheothermainoutcomes-reformsupportandwillingnesstousegiftingtoachieveamoregenderequitablebequestallocation-arepositivebutshyofstatisticalsignificance.Furthermore,theseeffectslargelydisappearwhenthegiftinginformationispairedwithreforminformationinT2.First-andsecond-orderbeliefsarestronglycorrelated:underestimatingthepublic’ssupportforle-galreformisthebestpredictorofanindividual’sowngenderattitudes,includingsupportforinheritancelawreform
.1
Almost60percentoftherespondentsinthesurveyunderestimate
1HereandinthefollowingIusetheterm“first-orderbelief”torefertoanindividual’sownbeliefs.i.e.“Iamfavorabletointroducinggenderequalinheritancelaw.”Iusetheterm“second-orderbelief”torefertoanindividual’sperceptionofwhatothersbelieve.i.e.“IthinkthatthemajorityofTunisiansareopposedtointroducinggenderequalinheritancelaw.”
4
publicreformsupportandIfindthatindividualswhodosoare29percentagepointslesslikelytosupportlegalreformthanindividualswhoholdcorrectsecond-orderbeliefs.Yet,thebeliefcorrectioninT2doesnotyieldtheresultsonewouldexpectifindividualsfeltcon-strainedbythebeliefthatothersdisapproveofreformingthelegalstatusquo:respondentswhounderestimate(overestimate)reformsupportshowpositive(negative)treatmenteffectsonallthreeoutcomes,buttheyarenotstatisticallysignificant.Bycontrast,treatedrespon-dentswhoholdcorrectbeliefsaresignificantlylesslikelytochooseagenderequalbequestandtosupportreform.Iarguethat,incontrasttowhathasbeenfoundbythepreviousliteraturewithrespecttobeliefsaboutwomen’slabormarketparticipation(
Bursztynetal.,
2020
)andpoliticalparticipation(
Gulzaretal.,
2020
),theperceivedsocialnormisunlikelytobethebindingconstraintinthiscontext.
Iproposetwocomplementarywaysofreconcilingthesefindingstheoretically.First,Ishowthatrespondentswhounderestimate(overestimate)publicreformsupportaregenerallyless(more)likelytoendorsegenderprogressiveattitudesthemselves.
Bursztynetal.
(2020)
andseveralotherstudiesfindthatsecond-orderbeliefscausallyaffectfirst-orderbeliefs;theperceivedsocialnormshapesindividualpreferences.However,Iarguethatthedirectionofthecausalityisnotclear.Itisalsopossiblethatfirst-orderbeliefsshapesecond-orderbeliefs-individualpreferencesdeterminewhatisperceivedtobethesocialnorm.Inthecontextofthisstudy,respondentsmaybelievethatthepublichesitatestosupportgenderequalityininheritancebecausetheythemselvesdonotsupportit.Ifthisisthecase,correctingsecond-orderbeliefswouldnotnecessarilyleadtoarevisionoffirst-orderbeliefs.Second,basedonpreviousliteratureinrelatedfields,Iarguethatthisunexpectedtreatmenteffectpatternmaybeexplainedbytheunderlyingcharacteristicsofrespondents,i.e.respondentswhounderestimate(overestimate)publicreformsupportmaydifferfromrespondentswhoholdcorrectperceptionsonsubstantivegrounds.
Inthecontrolgroup,respondentswhounderestimate(overestimate)publicreformsup-portaretheleast(most)likelytoholdprogressivegenderattitudes.Respondentswhounderestimatepublicreformsupportappeartobepartoftheeducatedandwealthyeliteofthecountry.Bycontrast,respondentswhoguesscorrectlyappeartosituatethemselvessomewhereclosertothemiddleoftheopinionspectrum.TheymakeextensiveuseofsocialmediaandarewellinformedabouttheTunisianfeministmovement.Iarguethattheyarelikelytobethepoliticalmoderateswhoseattitudesaremalleable.Thisfindingrelatestoagrowingliteraturewhichassessestheeffectivenessofinformationtoshapepoliticalopinions.
Alesinaetal.
(2018b),
Alesinaetal.
(2018c)and
HaalandandRoth
(
2023
)forinstance
5
havefoundthatindividualswhoholdstrongpoliticalbeliefsarelesslikelytorespondtoinformationaltreatments.Thefindingthatrespondentswhoholdcorrectbeliefsreactmorestronglytotreatmentmaythusbeduetotheirrelativelymoremoderatepoliticalopinionsandtheirinterestinsocialissues.Fromapolicyperspective,thisisahighlyrelevantfindingasthesearetherespondentswhoshouldbetargetedforpolicyinterventions.However,italsoimpliesthatbeliefcorrectionisunlikelytobeapolicysolutioninthiscontext.Thegroupof“politicalmoderates”issmall.Hence,eventhoughamajorityofrespondentsun-derestimatespublicreformsupport,correctingthismisperceptiondoesnotappeartobeanefficienttreatment.Futureresearchshouldinvestigatealternativestrategies.
Beyondtheexperimentalresults,thisstudypresentsnewdescriptiveandcorrelationalevidenceondemandforgenderequalityininheritanceinacontextwhereIslamicinheritancelawcontinuestobeapplied.Overall,supportfortheintroductionofaseculargenderequalinheritancelawislow:onlyaboutoneinthreerespondentsfavorslegalreform.Thisstandsinastrikingcontrastwithapprovalofgifting:twointhreerespondentsreportthattheyarewillingtogifttheirdaughtertoattenuategenderdiscriminationininheritance.Thedescriptivedataalsoconfirmsthatgiftingisfairlywide-spreadinTunisia:inthesurveyedsample,27percentofrespondentshavefirst-handexperiencewithgifting,meaningthattheyhavereceivedagiftthemselves,aremarriedtosomeonewhohasreceivedagift,ortheyhavegiftedadaughterorfemalerelative(seetable
3
).
However,thisdoesnotmeanthatgiftingisareadilyavailablealternativetolegalreformforthewholepopulationthepopulation.Ishowthatolderagecohortsaremorelikelytofavorgiftingoverreform,asarethemosteducated,wealthyandreligiousindividuals.Con-versely,demandforlegalreformissignificantlyhigheramongwomenandindividualswithloweducationalattainment.Takentogether,thesefindingssuggestthatgiftingindeedrep-resentsasociallyacceptablealternativetolegalreformofgenderdiscriminatoryinheritancelawinTunisia-butmostlyforarelativelywell-offsubsampleofthepopulation.
Myresearchrelatestoalargerliteratureongenderdiscriminationandinheritance,whichhasshownthatwell-intendedlegalreformmayfailtoempowerwomeninthepresenceof
regressivegendernorms(Rosenblum,
2015;
Roy,
2015
and
Bhalotraetal.,
2020).Changing
genderdiscriminatorysocialnormsisthereforeaprerequisteforsuccessfullegalreformandsustainabledevelopment(
Sunstein,
1996;
Bertrand,
2020
).Thisislikelytoapplytothecontextofgenderdiscriminationinwealthtransmission:encouragingthepracticeofgiftingone’sdaughtercouldtheoreticallyaffectsocialnormsaroundwomen’saccesstoproperty,
6
decreasingthecostofholdingprogressivegenderattitudesandpreparingthegroundsforsuc-cessfullegalchangeinthelongrun(
Banerjee,
1992;
Mehmoodetal.,
2022).Thedescriptive
evidencethisstudyprovidesclearlyshowsthatwomeninpracticerarelymakegifts.Thisimpliesthatpotentialinterventionsaimingtoencouragetheuseofgiftingshouldfocusonmalefamilyheads.However,mentendtoholdmoreconservativegendernormsthanwomen,andthedatashowsthatbothsonsanddaughtersreceivegifts.Apolicyinterventionmustthereforebecarefullydesignedandtakeintoaccountthatwomenuntilnowonlyoftendonotdisposeofthenecessaryassetownershiporbargainingpowertomakegifts.Consideringthesecaveats,giftingiscertainlynotapanaceatogenderdiscriminatoryinheritancelawandpractices.Itcanbeaviablesecond-bestsolutionforawealthysubsetofthepopulationwith
progressivegenderviews,though.
Tothebestofmyknowledge,thisisthefirststudytoquantifythedemandforgenderequalinheritancearrangementsinacontextwhereIslamicinheritancelawcontinuesbeingapplied.Furthermore,itisthefirsttoassessthepotentialtradeoffbetweentheintroduc-tionofseculargenderequalinheritancelawandgiftingone’sdaughter.Thedescriptiveandcorrelationalevidencethisstudyprovidessuggeststhatgiftingisfairlywidespreadand,acknowledgingthecaveatsmentionedabove,canallowtostrengthentheeconomicempower-mentofwomenfromcomparablywealthyandgenderprogressivefamilies.Section2providesmorebackgroundinformationontherelatedliteratureandtheinstitutionalsetting.Section3offersadetaileddescriptionofthedatacollectionandexperimentaldesign,aswellasmyconceptualframeworkandempiricalstrategy.Section4discussesdescriptivestatistics,regressionresults,robustnesschecksandlimitationsofthestudy.Section5concludes.
2BackgroundInformation
2.1RelatedLiterature
Thisstudyteststheeffectivenessofinformationongiftingandreformsupportforchanginggendernorms.Whilethisistothebestofmyknowledgethefirststudytoinvestigatethisparticularquestion,thereisagrowingbodyofliteratureusinginformationalexperiments.Theseexperimentscreateexogenousvariationinhowpeopleperceivetheirenvironment,allowingresearcherstogainabetterunderstandingofindividualchoicesandpreferences.Informationprovisionexperimentshaveforinstancebeenusedtoanalyzeindividualdemand
7
forredistribution(e.g.
Alesinaetal.,
2018c
or
Fehretal.,
2020,
Settele,
2022
),xenophobicanddiscriminatorybehavior(e.g.
Alesinaetal.,
2018a
or
Grigorieffetal.,
2020)orhealth
choices(e.g.
Dupas,
2011,
Bararietal.,
2020).Agrowingnumberofstudiesuseinformational
experimentstoprovideabetterunderstandingofgendernorms:
Bursztynetal.
(2020)show
thatcorrectingmisperceivedgendernormscanincreasefemalelabormarketparticipationinSaudiArabia.
Grewenigetal.
(2020a)showthatprescriptivegendernormshaveacausal
impactonadolescents’expectedlabormarketparticipationinGermany.
Settele
(
2022
)usesdivergentinformationonthegenderwagegapintheUStoanalyzehowbeliefsdrivetheindividualdemandforaffirmativeaction.
Alargeliteratureineconomicstheorizesandanalyzesindividuals’bequestbehaviorinsocietieswheregenderequalitybetweensiblingsisthelegalnorm.Asmallerliteraturehasconsideredthetrade-offbetweenmakinggiftsandbequests.
LundholmandOhlsson
(2000)’smodelshowsthatitisoptimalforparentstomakeinter-vivogiftstocompensate
theirlesswell-offchildrenintheUScontextwhereequalbequestallocationisthesocialnorm.Accordingtotheirassumption,bequestsarepublicinformationwhilegiftsareprivateinformation.Bymakinggifts,parentscandeviatefromthesocialnormofmakingequaltransferswithoutnegativereputationaleffects.
WithinavignetteexperimentrunonlineinGermany,
TischandGutfleisch
(
2022
)assesstheprincipleswhichguideindividuals’allocationofmonetarygiftsamongsiblingsofdifferentsexes.Thedominatingprincipleisgenderequality.However,theyalsofindevidenceforthe“equity”and“need”principles:sonsanddaughtersareassignedlargermonetaryamountswhentheyhelptheirparentsorwhentheyareunemployed.Thereissomeevidenceofgenderdiscriminatorypreferences,though:themonetaryrewardforhelpingtheirparentsappearstobehigherforsons.Conversely,unemployeddaughtersreceivemoreextramoneythan
unemployedsons.
Thispaperalsorelatestoalargerliteratureontheimportanceoflawfordevelopment.Theeconomicsliteratureprovidesevidencethatequalinheritancespurslong-termgrowthandprosperity(
Bartelsetal.,
2020
).Whilealotoftherecentliteraturefocusesonsocialnorms,
Htunetal.
(2019)arguethatitislegalrestrictionstowomen’sagencywhichbest
predictwomen’seconomicempowerment,measuredastheshareofwomenwhohavetheirownbankaccount,ownfirmsandparticipateinthelaborforce.
Gonzalesetal.
(
2015
)arguethatlegalgenderdiscriminationispositivelyrelatedtolargegendergapsinlabormarket
participation.
8
Incontextswherelegalreformhasbeenenacted,observationalstudiescanmeasurethecausalimpactofintroducinggenderequalinheritancelaw.WomeninWesterncountriesprogressivelygainedpropertyandinheritancerightsinthe19thand20thcentury.
Shammas
(1994)arguesthattheMarriedWomenPropertyActswhichwereprogressivelyadoptedby
USstatesfrom1839improvedthelegalsituationofwomen.Accordingtothehistorian,thepercentageofwealthownedbywomenintheUSincreasedmorebetween1860and1890thaninthetwocenturiesprecedingtheacts.Thequantiativeevidenceontheeffectivenessoflegalreformisatbestmixed,though:theexperienceofIndiaillustratesthatpolicymakers’attempttoincreasewomen’saccesstoinheritancemaybackfirewhenrestrictivegendernormsprevail.Usingadifference-in-differencesapproach
Rosenblum
(
2015
)showsthatgrantingdaughterstherighttoinheritancestrallandsinfiveIndianstatesincreasedthemortalityofgirls-thelawseemstohaveincentivizedparentstoinvestlessinthehealthoftheirdaughters.
Bhalotraetal.
(
2020
)confirmthattheintroductionofgenderequalinheritancerightsledtohigherfemaleinfantmortalityandanincreaseintheuseofson-biasedfertilitystoppingrulesinIndia.
Roy
(2015)arguesthatthereformatbestremained
ineffective-inreality,daughters’accesstoancestrallanddidnotincrease.Bycontrast,familiescompensatedthemwithhigherdowriesorincreasedinvestmentintheirdaughters’
education.
Genderdiscriminationinwealthtransmissionmaypersistevenwherethelawisgenderequal:
Bessi`ereandGollac
(2023)showthatgenderdiscriminationinwealthtransmission
iscommonplaceintheUSandEuropeandhasevenincreasedinFranceoverthepasttwodecades.Inter-vivogiftscanbeonewayforfamiliestofavorsons.Moreover,land,realestatepropertyorfamilybusinessesaremostcommonlypassedonto(first-born)sonswithdaughtersbeingpaidout“their”share.Accordingto
Bessi`ereandGollac
(
2023
),notariesoftendeliberatelyundervaluetheseassetssotheycanstayinthefamily-leadingtoadiscriminationofthechildren,mostoftendaughtersandyoungersons,whoarepaidout.Socialnormsandthepracticesofnotariesandlawyerscanthuscontributetothepersistenceofgenderdiscriminationinwealthtransmissiondespitegenderequalinheritancelaw.
2.2GenderIssuesinTunisia
ThelegalandsocialcontextoftheMENAregionandTunisiainparticulardiffersfromtheSouthAsiancontext,whichhasbeenresearchedmuchmoreextensively:therearenoreportsofgender-biasedabortionsortheuseofson-basedstoppingrulesintheregion.Historically,
9
Tunisiaisknownforbeingtheregionalfrontrunnerwithrespecttowomen’srights:thecountryabolishedrepudiationandpolygamyuponthepassageofits1956civilcode(
Latte-
Abdallah
,
2012
).Abortionwaslegalizedin1973,earlierthaninFranceandItaly.Womenhaveoutnumberedmeninhighereducationsincethelate1990s(
Assaadetal.,
2017
and
WorldBank
,
2022a
)andhavereachedtoppositionsinthepublicandprivatesector.In2021,NejlaBoudenbecamethefirstfemaleprimeministeroftheArabworld(
Terriennes,
2021
).Yet,genderdiscriminationremainsproblematic,especiallywhenitcomestowomen’slabormarketparticipationandpropertyrights.PolicymakersandhumanrightsactivistsinTunisiaandthelargerMENAregionhavearguedthatlegaldispossessionincreaseswomen’svulnerabilityandhinderssustainabledevelopment.Womenoftencedetheshareofthebequestwhichtheyarelegallyentitledtomalefamilymembers(see
ConseilNationaldes
Droitsdel’Homme,
2015
)forthecaseofMorocco).Accordingtoamixedmethodstudyconductedby
Khodary
(2018)inEgypt,thisisespeciallycommonwhentheinheritance
concernsagriculturalland.Theauthorarguesthatimprovingwomen’saccesstoinheritanceislikelytohaveaverypositiveimpactondevelopmentoutcomes,butherresultsaremostly
correlational.
In2000,theTunisianwomen’srightsadvocateYosraFrawesstartedafirstunsuccessfulpetitioninfavorofgenderequalityininheritance(
Dahmani,
2018
).TheTunisianRevolutionendedtheregimeofBenAliandstartedaprocessofdemocratizationin2011.Article21ofthe2014constitutionconfirmedgenderequalitybeforethelaw:“Allcitizens,maleandfemale,haveequalrightsandduties,andareequalbeforethelawwithoutanydiscrimination”
(ConstituteProject,Org.,
2014)
.2
Forprogressiveobservers,PresidentB´ejiCa¨ıdEssebsi’screationoftheCOLIBECommitteein2017thereforeseemedthelogicalcontinuationof
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