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ESTIMATINGSTRUCTURAL
BUDGETBALANCES
INDEVELOPINGASIA
JoãoTovarJalles
NO.719
ADBECONOMICS
April2024
WORKINGPAPERSERIES
ASIANDEVELOPMENTBANK
ADBEconomicsWorkingPaperSeries
EstimatingStructuralBudgetBalancesinDevelopingAsia
JoãoTovarJalles
No.719|April2024
JoãoTovarJalles(joaojalles@)isasenior
associateprofessorofeconomicsattheLisbonSchoolofEconomicsandManagement(ISEG),UniversityofLisbon.
TheADBEconomicsWorkingPaperSeries
presentsresearchinprogresstoelicitcommentsandencouragedebateondevelopmentissuesinAsiaandthePacific.Theviewsexpressed
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DOI:
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ABSTRACT
Thispaperreviewsthecurrentdiscussions,methods,andpracticessurroundingtheestimationofreasonableproxiesfortheunderlyingfiscalposition,ausefulanchorforfiscalpolicy.AnempiricalapplicationtodevelopingAsianeconomiesiscarriedout.Thereisnoone-sizefitsalltypeofapproachandthesensitivityanddiscernmentregardingspecificeconomiesareimportantinvariousstages.Thechoiceofthefiltertodecomposetrendsfromcyclesmatters.Thewaytoadjustrevenuesandexpendituresenteringthecyclicallyadjustedbalancealsomatters—choicesregardingeconomy-specificvs.panelestimationsortheuseofstaticvs.time-varyingapproachesneedtobemade.Todealwithone-offoperations,anarrative-basedapproachcancomplementthesuggestedidentificationbasedonlargechangesincyclicallyadjustedgovernmentcapitaltransfers.Adiscussionofotherimportantfactorsthatcanaffecttheestimatesofstructuralbalancessuchasassetandcommoditypricesisalsoprovided.
Keywords:budgetelasticity,time-varyingestimation,trend-cycledecomposition,cyclicallyadjustedbalances,one-offfiscaloperations
JELcodes:C33,E62,H30,H60,O53
1.Introduction
Forfiscalsurveillanceandmonitoring,itisparamounttoassessthestateofpublicfinancesandfiscalpolicies,thatis,tounderstandthenatureofbudgetarydevelopments.Actualbudgetbalancesareinadequatemeasuresforthesepurposesastheyareaffectedbymultiplefactorsthatarebothtemporaryandoutsidethedirectcontrolofthe
government.
Primeamongstthesefactorsarefluctuationsineconomicactivity.Theunderstandingthateconomicfluctuations,whicharetransitoryinnature,haveontheinterpretationandevaluationoffiscaldevelopmentssupportedthenotionthatnominal
budgetscouldnotbetakenatfacevaluesincetheycombinetemporaryandpermanent
disturbances(LarchandTurrini2009).Disentanglingthetwoelementsledtothecreation
oftheconceptofthecyclicallyadjustedbudgetbalance(CAB),whichcametolivemorethan30yearsagoinaseminalcontributionbyBlanchardetal.(1990).1TheCABseekstocorrectfiscaloutcomesfortheinfluenceofcyclicalmovements.Inotherwords,theyaimatdeterminingwhatfiscalpositionwouldprevailiftheeconomyoperatedatitsfull
capacity(ECB2014).
Inadditiontotheimpactoftheeconomiccycle,otheraspectsthathavebecomeprogressivelyimportantaretheone-offmeasures.Thesearetemporarygovernmentmeasuressuchasone-offrevenues(forinstance,stemmingfromthesaleoflicensesfortelecommunication)orone-offcapitaltransfers(forinstance,financialaidtothebanking
sector).
1Infact,Brown(1956)pioneeredtheextractionoftheunderlyingbudgetbalancebycomputingthefullemploymentsurplus,thepredecessoroftheCAB.TheconceptualadvantageofpotentialGDPofpotentialoutputoverfullemploymentdidnotfacilitatethingsinpracticalterms.Thecomputationofpotentialoutputstillremainsaspeculativeissuedespitemanymethodsandapproacheshavingbeendeveloped(Section3.1).
2
Strippingtheimpactofshort-termfluctuationsandone-offsyieldwhatsomeinternationalorganizationsrefertoas“structuralbudgetbalance”(SB)(InternationalMonetaryFund[IMF])orthe“underlyingfiscalposition”(EuropeanCommission[EC]).2TheattractionoftheSBsitswithitsgoaltomeasure,atlowcost,the“true”fiscalposition
correctedoftransitorycyclicalfactors.
However,estimatesofthestructuralbalancecanbesubjectedtosignificantmeasurementserrorsastheyaresurroundedbyconsiderableuncertainty.Theseerrorsarerelatedtoaccuratelyestimatingtheoutputgap—whichisanunobservablevariable—andthenonlinearreactionsoftaxrevenuestosharpchangesinrealgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)growth.Thedefinitionoridentificationoftemporaryfactorscanalsocausedifficulties.Theseproblemscomplicatetheapplicabilityofthisconceptineconomiesthatareregularlyaffectedbysevereshocks(e.g.,weatherevents);thosethathaveaproductionstructurethatisnotsufficientlydiversifiedand,hence,rendertheeconomyhostageofcommoditycycles;orthosewhosegrowthoutlookischaracterizedbyalackofsomeanchoredpredictability.Thisreportaimstoreviewthecurrentdiscussionssurroundingtheestimationofreasonableproxiesofdiscretionaryfiscalstancebyreviewingmethodsandpractices.AnempiricalapplicationtoaselectionofdevelopingmembereconomiesoftheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)iscarriedoutbutfullresultsareavailableintheAppendixes.3Wecanconcludefromtheempiricalexercisesthatthereisnoone-sizefitsallanddesksensibilityandjudgmentisimportantinvariousdegrees.
Thechoiceofthefiltertodecomposetrendsandcyclesmatterswithapreferencetoavoid
2Fortheremainderofthedocument,Iwillbereferringtostructuralbalanceasthemeasurestrippedfrombothcyclicalvariationsandone-offmeasures.
3Theappendixesareavailableat
/10.22617/WPS240087-2
.
3
theoutdatedandproblematicHPfilterinfavoroftheHamilton(2018)approach.Moreover,thetakeonhowtoadjustrevenuesandexpenditureenteringtheCBorSBisparamount.Thereisaplethoraofchoicestobemade,frompriorempiricalestimationattheeconomy-specificlevel,towhethersuchanalysisshouldbedoneinastaticortime-varyingfashion,towhichsubcomponentsofrevenuesandexpendituresarelikelytofluctuatewiththecycleorbeorthogonaltoit.Furthermore,ifonethinksaboutone-offoperations,thenamorenarrative-basedapproachcancomplementtheadhocidentificationoflargechangesincyclicallyadjustedgovernmentcapitaltransfers.Finally,thereisthediscussionofotherfactorsinadditiontothecycle,suchasassetandcommodityprices,whichincludeschangesinhousingpricesandtermsoftradeadjustmentsthatcanprovetobedifficulttobereflectedinameasureoftheunderlyingfiscalposition.Ultimately,SBsareausefulanchorforfiscalpolicy,butshouldnotbe
takentooseriouslyforreal-timepolicymaking.
Theremainderofthereportisorganizedasfollows.Section2elaboratesontherationalebehindneedingameasureofcyclicallyadjustedbudgetbalances;Section3presentstheexistingmethodologiestodosocontrastingprosandconsofeachone,theso-calledaggregatedvs.disaggregatedapproaches;Section4dealswithone-offfiscaloperationsandtheissuesconcerningthepassagefromcyclicallyadjustedbalancestoameasureofunderlyingbalanceorstructuralbalance;Section5performsseveralempirical
applicationsonADBmembereconomies;andthelastsectionconcludes.
4
2.WhyDoWeNeedaMeasureoftheCyclicallyAdjustedBudgetBalanceor
StructuralBudgetBalance?
Despitetheflawsandproblems,theCAB(and/ortheSB)continuestobeoneofthemainindicatorsnecessaryforfiscalpolicyanalysis.Morespecifically,itisanimportantconcept
becauseitallows:
(i)splittingtheinfluenceofdiscretionaryfiscalpolicytoagivenchangeinthedeficitfromtheeffectoftheeconomicenvironmentwhilesimultaneouslyallowing
automaticstabilizerstooperatefreely;
(ii)evaluatingfiscalimpulses;and
(iii)assessingiffiscalpolicyinthelong-runissustainable.
On(i),thediscussionintheliteraturesurroundstheroleoffiscalpolicyin
macroeconomicstabilization.Calculatingthestructuralbalancemeanssplittingthefiscalstanceintothecyclicalandthestructuralcomponents.Moregenerally,fiscalpolicycanhelpthestabilizationofthebusinesscyclebymeansofthreedifferentchannels(Silgoner,Reitschuler,andCrespo-Cuaresma2003).Thefirstreferstotheroleofthecyclicalcomponent,thatis,theautomaticstabilizers.Thereis,nonetheless,asecondindirectchannelrelatedtopublicspendingitemsthatcontinuefixed,independentofthephaseofthebusinesscycleandbynotreactingtoitalsohaveastabilizingfunction.Thethird,istheuseofdiscretionaryfiscalpolicy(despitemostliteraturepointingtoapro-cyclicalbiasofthesepoliciesand,hence,adestabilizingeffect(vandenNoord2000).Changesinthestructuralbalanceneedpolicyactionsandtranslatediscretionaryfiscalpolicychanges.4
WhiletheGlobalFinancialCrisis(and,morerecently,thecoronavirusdisease[COVID-
4ToDosReisetal.(2007)itispreferabletorefertoautomaticstabilizersas“apassivepolicyresponsetothecycle.”
5
19]pandemic)stressedtherelevanceofdiscretionaryfiscalpolicy,theconsensusremainsthatautomaticstabilizershaveakeyroletoplayundermorenormal
circumstances(Blanchardetal.2010).5
On(ii),theissueisabouttheidentificationoftheeffectoffiscalimpulsesorshocksonagivenmacroeconomic(orother)outcome.Changesinstructuralbalancescanimplytheimpactontheeconomyofdiscretionaryactions(MullerandPrice1984).Theresearchonfiscalmultipliersisvoluminous(forinstance,Batinietal.2014discussthis).Avarietyofmethodscanbeusedtomeasurethe(“discretionary”)fiscalimpulsefrom“naturalexperiments”(Barro1981,RameyandZubairy2018),toforecasterrorsapproaches(AuerbachandGorodnichenko2013a,2013b;Abiadetal.2016;FurceriandLi2017)usedtoovercometheproblemof“fiscalforesight”(ForniandGambetti2010,BenZeevandPappa2015),tocyclicallyadjustedmethods(Adarovetal.forthcoming)especiallyinthecontextofstudieslookingatfiscalconsolidationsepisodes(GiavazziandPagano
1996,AfonsoandJalles2014,Clementsetal.2022).
On(iii),theconceptofCABisthemostimportanttofiscalsustainabilitydefinedastheleveltowhichthedebt–to-GDPratioconvergesinthelong-termgiventhepotentialoftheeconomy.6Fiscalsustainabilitycanbeevaluatedbasedondebtdynamicsresulting
fromthestructuralfiscalstance(Escolano2010).Inonecomparesthestructuralbalance
5Wheneconomicactivityslowsdown,revenuesarenegativelyaffected,andspendingmayincreaseautomatically—leadingtoariseinthefiscaldeficit.Empiricalstudiesacknowledgethedifficultiesincomeupwithreliableestimatesoffiscalstabilizers,buttheyalsorecognizethenecessitytohavesomeapproximations(Cotisetal.1998,AuerbachandFeenberg2000).Recentcontributionsoncomputingandemployingestimatesoffiscalstabilizersinclude:Furcerietal.(2020),FurceriandJalles(2019,2018),andJalles(2020,2018).
6Theconceptoffiscalsustainabilityrevolvesarounddeterminingthefutureprimarybudgetsurplusesnecessarytostabilizethedebt-to-GDPratio.ThisdebtratioisinfluencedbytherelativevaluesoftheimplicitnominalinterestrateandthenominalgrowthrateofGDP,ashighlightedinBlanchardetal.(1990).Whenconsideringthefinancialperspective,itmaybemoreappropriatetoshiftourattentiontowardsthegovernment'sborrowingrequirements,encompassingborrowingforfinancialtransactions,ratherthansolelyfocusingonthestructuralorunderlyingfiscalbalance.Insuchascenario,itbecomesvaluabletoconcentrateonthegovernment'sbalancesheetwhenevaluatingitsimplicationsforfiscalsustainability,assuggestedbyMoriyamaandMilesi-Ferretti(2004).
6
againstabenchmark(forinstance,thedebt-stabilizingbudgetbalance),canallowonetounderstandtowhatextentthecurrentfiscalpolicypathcanbesustained(Bornhorstetal.2011).Thisalsotranslatedaproxyofthefiscaleffortneededtocorrectanyfiscalimbalances.Thestructuralbalance,bycorrectingforshort-termcyclicalfactorsandone-
offs,issuitableforthispurpose.
Adjustmentsbeyondthebusinesscyclerequiresomeadditionaljudgement,suchthattheuseofthestandardfilteringtechniquesshouldbesoundlymotivated.Thedifficultyoriginatesfromthedeterminationofthe“normal”stateofeconomicvariablesotherthanoutput.Whenlookingatissuessuchasassetorcommodityprices,thesourcesofeconomicfluctuationsarerelevant.Ifshockscomefromthedemandsideoftheeconomy,thenthefilteringtechniqueswillpinpointboththecyclicalandtrendcomponents.However,ifshocksaresupply-driven,theireffectisexpectedtobe
permanent,makinganytrend-cyclefilteringapproachdeceptive.
3.MethodologiestoObtainCyclicallyAdjustedBalance
3.1Aggregatedvs.DisaggregatedApproach
TherangeofmethodologiesforobtainingtheCABorSBcanberesumedtoessentiallythreepossibilities.Thefirst,wasdevelopedbyBlanchard(1990)anditinvolvesestimatingcyclicallyadjustedmeasuresofrevenuesandexpendituresdirectlyfromregressions.LaterapplicationsofthisfirstapproachrelyonstructuralVectorAutoRegressions(VARs)(DalsgaardanddeSerres1999)andunobservedcomponentmodels(Camba-Mendez
andLamo2002).
7
Fromnow,wewillapplyBlanchard’sapproach.Wecannormallygroupthedifferentmethodologiesintoeithertheaggregatedorthedisaggregatedapproach.TheEuropeanCommission(EC)andtheOrganisationforEconomicCo-OperationandDevelopment(OECD)respectivelyapplythesetwoapproachesforthecyclical
adjustmentofgovernmentbudgetbalances.
TheEC’saggregateapproachisbasedontheresponseofgovernmentexpenditureandrevenuetotheoutputgap.Thecyclicalcomponentofthebudgetbalanceisthenobtainedastheproductoftheoutputgapandaparameterreflectingtheautomaticreactionofthegovernmentbalancetoitssize.Atsomemomentintime,theIMFalsoappliedthisaggregatemethod(Fedelinoetal.2009).Thebigadvantageofthisaggregatedapproachisthatitisarathersimpleexercisewithminimaldatarequirementsthatprovidesagoodbasisforcross-economycomparisons.Thedisadvantageisthatitcanproduceaccurateresultsonlyifthemajorfiscalaggregatesbehavebroadlysimilarly
withrespecttotheoutputgapandrevenues’compositionhardlychange.
TheOECDapplieswhatisknownasthedisaggregatedapproachwhichconsistsinobtainingestimatesoftheelasticitiesofthemaincomponentsofthebudgetwithrespecttothecycleintheirrelevanttaxbases(Bouthevillainetal.2001).TheOECD’sapproachmainadvantageisthatitexplicitlyallowstheidentificationofsuchcompositioneffects,anditenablesamoreaccurateestimateoftheunderlyingfiscalposition.Hence,thisapproachoffersmorestabilityandbetterinsightsintothecyclicalresponseofvariousbudgetaryitems,inotherwords,insightsintothecompositionofautomaticstabilizers.Understandingofthedifferenttaxes’cyclicalsensitivitiescanalsohelpinevaluatingthe
impactofaneconomicdecelerationonsub-nationalpublicfinancesiftaxesaresubject
8
torevenuesharing(Bornhorstetal.2011).Themaindisadvantageofthisdisaggregatedapproachisthatitismoredata-intensivewhichcanposeaproblemforlargercross-
sectionalsamples.
WhichApproachtoFollow?
Cyclicallyadjustedfiscalvariablescomputedusingtheaggregatedapproachwillbesimilartothoseobtainedbyweighted-averagingdisaggregatedadjustmentsofrevenue
andexpenditureitems,ifatleasttwoconditionsaremet:
.Thecompositionofexpendituresandrevenuesareakeptroughlyunchanged.Theaggregatemethodismosteffectivewhentherearenosignificantvariationsinthe
cyclicalpatternsofmajortaxorspendingcategories.
.Elasticitiesforindividualbudgetaryitemsareakeptroughlyunchanged.However,alterationsintaxpoliciesoradjustmentstothesocialbenefitsystemcanimpactelasticities,subsequentlyinfluencingthesensitivityoffiscalvariablestoeconomic
cycles(Bornhorstetal.2011).
Finalresultsfrombothapproachescandiffer,however,evenwhentheabove-mentioned
conditionsareverified.
Mutualtoeitherapproachisthemathematicalstepwisesequencing.Acyclicalcomponentofthebudgetbalance,“CC”,isfirstestimatedandsubsequentlysubtracted
fromthenominalbudgetbalance(BB)togettheCAB,sothat:
cABi=BBi−cci(1)
whereallvariablesareexpressedinpercentofGDP(Bornhorstetal.2011).7
7Intheory,itisconceptuallymoreaccuratetousepotentialGDPinsteadofnominalGDP.Forinstance,changesintheexpenditureratiomayoccursimplyduetofluctuationsinnominalGDP,eveniftheactualspendinglevelsremain
9
TheestimationofthecyclicalcomponentCCrequirestwoinputs:
(i)ameasureofthecyclicalpositionoftheeconomy,whichisgenerallymeasuredbytheoutputgap,measureofaneconomy’scyclicalpositiondefinedasthe
distancebetweenactualandpotentialoutput(Section3.1);and
(ii)ameasureofthelinkbetweenthecycleandthecomponentsofthebudget,summarizedbyelasticityparametersrepresentingthepercentagechangeinbudgetaryitemsassociatedwithpercentagechangesinthelevelofeconomicactivity.8Onthisaspectofelasticities,someresearchersusethoseprovided
byothers(e.g.,GirouardandAndré2005)orestimatetheirown(Section3.2).
Thecyclicallyadjustedbudgetbalance(CAB)isderivedas:
CABi=BBi−ε.OGi(
2)
whereεtheoverallbudgetarysensitivityparameterandOGiistheoutputgap.
Inpracticeandmathematicallyequivalent,onewaytoobtainameasureofthe
CABistocomputeitasafunctionofcyclicallyadjustedrevenue(R)andcyclically
adjustedexpenditures(G):
CABi=R−G(3)
constant,whichwouldn'tbethecasewhenratiosarecalculatedinrelationtopotentialGDP.AlthoughvariousmethodsexistforcalculatingpotentialGDPandoutputgaps,theycomewithseveralchallenges,asdiscussedinSection3.1.Generally,potentialGDPisalessreadilyunderstoodconceptcomparedtonominalGDPandisseldomutilizedbypolicymakersandthegeneralpublic.ThisisevidentinhowfiscalanalysistypicallyreliesonratiosinvolvingnominalGDP.Consequently,expressingdeviationsofheadlinedeficits(andfiscalvariables)asapercentageofpotentialGDPmaynotresonatewellwithgovernmentauthoritiesandthepublic.Therefore,thereisatrade-offbetweenanalyticalprecision(whenusingpotentialGDP)andtheconvenienceofcommonlyusedindicators(whenusingnominalGDP)(Fedelinoetal.2009).
8DiscussionsabouttheestimationoftaxelasticitiescanbefoundinBouthevillainetal.(2001),vandenNoord(2002),GirouardandAndré(2005),andWolswijk(2007).
10
Cyclicallyadjustedrevenuecanbecalculatedbymodifyingactualrevenuefigurestoaccountfortheimpactofthegapbetweenpotentialandactualoutput,wherethe
revenueelasticitydeterminesthemagnitudeofthecyclicalimpact:
R=Tఘೃ,ೊ=r(OG−1)ି(ఘೃ,ೊ)(4)
whereTdenotestheshareofrevenuesinGDP,denotestheoutputgapdefinedastheratioofpotential(Y*)toactualGDP(Y).Thiscanrelatedirectlytothemorecommonlyusedexpressionfortheoutputgap,thepercentagedeviationofactualfrompotentialGDP(0G=)asfollows:=.Economically,withahigherthanonerevenueelasticity(pோ,>1),eachpercentageincreaseintheoutputgapleadstoalargerthanone
percentagechangeinrevenues(Bornhorstetal.2011).
Analogously,cyclicallyadjustedexpendituresarecomputedas:
G=gఘಸ,ೊ=g(OG−1)ି(ఘಸ,ೊ)(5)
wheregdenotestheshareofexpendituresinGDP.
So,ineffect,equation(3)canberewrittenas
CAB=r(OG−1)ି(ఘೃ,ೊ)−g(OG−1)ି(ఘಸ,ೊ)(6)
AsbudgetaryvariablesaretypicallyexpressedinpercentofGDP,theelasticities
ofrevenueandexpenditureitemspோ,andpீ,respectively,aretranslatedintosensitivity
parametersinthefollowingway:
(7)
εோ=pோ,.;εீ=pீ,.
suchthatthedifferenceεோ−εீyieldstheoverallbudgetarysensitivityparameterεused
intheequation(2).
11
Table1showsasampleofOECDeconomies’aggregatebudgetaryelasticities
parametersretrievedfromLarchandTurrini(2009).
Table1:BudgetarySensitivityParameters
Economy
Revenue
Expenditure
BudgetBalance
Economy
Revenue
Expenditure
BudgetBalance
Belgium
0.47
-0.07
0.54
Hungary
0.45
-0.01
0.46
Bulgaria
0.35
-0.01
0.36
Malta
0.35
-0.01
0.36
CzechRepublic
0.36
-0.01
0.37
TheNetherlands
0.39
-0.17
0.55
Denmark
0.50
-0.15
0.65
Austria
0.43
-0.04
0.47
Germany
0.40
-0.11
0.51
Poland
0.33
-0.06
0.40
Estonia
0.29
-0.01
0.30
Portugal
0.41
-0.04
0.45
Greece
0.42
-0.01
0.43
Romania
0.28
-0.02
0.30
Spain
0.38
-0.05
0.43
Slovenia
0.42
-0.05
0.47
France
0.44
-0.06
0.49
SlovakRepublic
0.27
-0.02
0.29
Ireland
0.36
-0.05
0.40
Finland
0.41
-0.09
0.50
Italy
0.49
-0.02
0.50
Sweden
0.48
-0.10
0.58
Cyprus
0.39
-0.01
0.39
UnitedKingdom
0.40
-0.02
0.42
Latvia
0.26
-0.02
0.28
Lithuania
0.26
-0.01
0.27
Euroarea
0.42
-0.06
0.48
Luxembourg
0.48
-0.01
0.49
EU27
0.39
-0.04
0.43
Source:LarchandTurrini(2009).
Thedisaggregatedapproachfinetunestheoverallprevioussequenceofstepsbyfurtherdecomposingthetwomainbudgetaryitemsofrevenuesandexpendituresandestimatingindividualrevenueelasticities.Whendoingso,oneneedstotakeastanceonrevenueorexpenditureitemsthatmaynotrequirecyclicaladjustment.Thismeansthatonlyasubsetofrevenuecomponentsisadjusted,thosetypicallybeingpersonalincometaxes,corporateincometaxes,indirecttaxesorvalue-addedtaxesandsocialsecuritycontributions.Forexpenditure,somerelyoncyclicaladjustmentofonlycurrentprimaryexpenditures,therefore,excludinginterestpaymentsandcapitalexpenditure).9Others
simplyfocusononeitemofcurrentprimaryexpenditures,theunemploymentbenefits.
9Interestexpensesmaydisplaycyclicalityintandemwithfiscaldeficits,resultinginincreased(decreased)borrowingneedswhenthereisapositive(negative)outputgap.This,inturn,canleadtofluctuationsintheinterestcostsincurred.Countercyclicalshiftsininterestrateshavethepotentialtooffsetthecyclicalnatureofborrowingrequirements,potentiallyresultinginaminimalnetimpact,ifany,assuggestedbyFarringtonetal.(2008).
12
However,theynormallyaccountforasmallproportionoftotalorprimaryspendinginmost
economies(ifatall).
Mathematically,thisversionoftheCABcanbeexpressedas:
CAB=ൣ൫∑R൯−G+Rே−Gே൧
(8)
whereRisthecyclicallyadjustedcomponentiofrevenues,Gisthecyclically
adjustedunemployment-relatedexpenditures,RேandGேdenotethenon-cyclically
adjustedrevenueandexpenditurecomponentsrespectively.
Forcyclicallyadjustedrevenues,thenewpோ,canbeobtainedas:
(9)
pோ,=∑pோ,
wherepோ,istheelasticityofeachrevenuecomponentwithrespecttotheoutputgap
andistheshareofeachrevenuecomponentiintotal
Forcyclicallyadjustedexpenditures,thenewpீ,
pீ,=pீ,
ீೆ
ீ
revenues.
canbeobtainedas:
(10)
wherepீ,istheelasticityofunemploymentbenefitswithrespecttotheoutputgapand
istheshareofunemploymentbenefitsincurrentprimaryexpenditure
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