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第二部分单元练习
ChapterOneLanguage
Definethefollowingterms
1)discreteness2)designfeatures
3)arbitrariness4)duality
5)displacement6)culturaltransmission
7)theimaginativefunctionoflanguage8)thepersonalfunctionoflanguage
9)theheuristicfunctionoflanguage10)language
MultipleChoice
Directions:Ineachquestiontherearefourchoices.Decidewhichonewouldbethebest
answertothequestionortocompletethesentencebest.
1)Whichofthefollowingwordsisentirelyarbitrary?
A.treeB.crashC.typewriterD.bang
2)Thefunctionofthesentence"Waterboilsat100degreesCentigrade^^is.
A.interrogativeB.directiveC.infonnativeD.performative
3)InChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentare
likelytosaysuisuipingan(everyyearbesafeandhappy)asameansofcontrollingthe
forceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlives.Whichfunctiondoesit
perform?
A.Interpersonal.B.Emotive.CPerformative.D.Recreational.
4)Whichofthefollowingpropertiesoflanguageenableslanguageuserstoovercomethe
barrierscausedbytimeandplace,duetothisfeatureoflanguage,speakersofalanguage
arefreetotalkaboutanythinginanysituation?
A.interchangeability.B.Duality.
C.Displacement.D.Arbitrariness.
5)Studythefollowingdialogue.Whatfunctiondoesitplayaccordingtothefunctionsof
language?
——Aniceday,isn'tit?
——Right!Ireallyenjoythesunlight.
A.EmotiveB.Phatic.C.Pefbrmative.D.Interpersonal.
6)Unlikeanimalcommunicationsystems,humanlanguageis.
A.stimulusfree
B.stimulusbound
C.underimmediatestimuluscontrol
D.stimulatedbysomeoccurrenceofcommunalinterest.
7)Whichofthefollowingisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?
A.interpersonalfunctionB.performativefunction
C.informativefunctionD.recreationalfunction
8)Indifferentlanguages,differenttermsareusedtoexpresstheanimal"狗”,thisshows
thenatureof-ofhumanlanguage.
AarbitrarinessBculturaltransmissionCdisplacementDdiscreteness
9)Whichofthefollowingdisciplinesarerelatedtoappliedlinguistics?
A.statisticsB.psycholinguistics
C.physicsD.philosophy
10)hasbeenwidelyacceptedasthefatherofmodemlinguistics.
A.ChomskyB.SaussureC.BloomfieldD.JohnLyons
3.WordCompletion
Directions:Fillintheblankswiththemostsuitablewords.
1)Designfeatures,aframeworkproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett,refer
tothepropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishesitfromanyanimal
systemofcommunication.
2)referstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfully
distinct.Forinstance,thedifferencebetweenthesounds/p/and/b/isnotactuallyvery
great,butwhenthesesoundsarepartofalanguagelikeEnglish,theyareusedinsucha
waythattheoccurrenceofoneratherthantheotherismeaningful.
3)Inanylanguagewordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthingsandcanbe
combinedintoinnumerablesentencesbasedonlimitedrules.Thisfeatureisusually
termedporc.
4)Languagehasmanyfunctions.Wecanuselanguagetotalkaboutlanguageitself.This
functionismfunction.
5)Culturaltransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageisctransmitted.Itis
passedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanby
i.
6)Onegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofoverwriting.
7)Thefunctionreferstotheuseoflanguagetocommunicateknowledgeabout
theworld,toreportevents,tomakestatements,togiveaccounts,toexplainrelationships,
torelaymessagesandsoon.
8)Thefunctionreferstolanguageusedtoensuresocialmaintenance.Phatic
communionispartofit.Thetermphaticcommunionintroducedbytheanthropologist
BronislawMalinowskireferstolanguageusedforestablishinganatmosphereor
maintainingsocialcontactratherthanfbrexchangingfacts.
9)LanguageisasystemofarbitrarysymbolsusedfbrhumanCommunication.
10)Languagehastwolevels.Theyarelevelandlevel.
11)Languageisabecauseeverylanguageconsistsofasetofruleswhich
underliepeople'sactualspeechorwriting.
12)Thefunctionreferstolanguageusedinanattempttocontroleventsoncethey
happen.
13)Thedesignfeaturesoflanguageare(1)(2)(3)
(4)(5)(6)and(7).
14)Bysaying“languageisarbitrary",wemeanthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetween
meaningand.
15)Thefourprinciplesinthelinguisticstudyare(1)(2)(3)
and(4).
4.TrueorFalseQuestions
Directions:Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.WriteTfbrtrue
andFfbrfalseinthebracketbeforeeachofthem.
1)()Therelationbetweenformandmeaninginhumanlanguageisnatural.
2)()Whenlanguageisusedtogetinformationfromothers,itservesaninformative
function.
3)()ThereasonforFrenchtousechevalandforEnglishtousehorsetorefertothesame
animalisinexplicable.
4)()Mostanimalcommunicationsystemslacktheprimarylevelofarticulation.
5)()Languagechangeisuniversal,ongoingandarbitrary.
6)()Languageisasystemofarbitrary,writtensignswhichpermitallthepeopleinagiven
culture,orotherpeoplewhohavelearnedthesystemofthatculture,tocommunicateor
interact.
7)()Intheory,thelengthofsentencesislimited.
8)()Therelationshipbetweenthesoundsandtheirmeaningisarbitrary.
9)()Linguisticsymbolsareakindofvisualsymbols,whichincludevocalsymbols.
10)()Linguisticsymbolsareproducedbyhumanspeechorgans.
11)()Everylanguagehastwolevels:grammatically—meaninglessandsound一
meaningful.
12)()Suchfeaturesoflanguageasbeingcreative,vocal,andarbitrarycandifferentiate
humanlanguagesfromanimalcommunicativesystems.
13)()Dualityisoneofthecharacteristicsofhumanlanguage.Itreferstothefactthat
languagehastwolevelsofstructures:thesystemofsoundsandthesystemofmeanings.
14)()Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Therefore,thecommunicationway
usedbythedeaf-muteisnotlanguage.
15)()Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityof
languagemakesalanguagebepassedfromgenerationtogeneration.Asaforeign
languagelearner,thelatterismoreimportantforus.
Glossarytranslation
1)personalfunction
2)heauristicfunction
3)ideationalfunction
4)interchangeability
5)控制功能
6)表现功能
7)文化传递性
8)分离性
9)区别性特征
10)不受时空限制的属性
11)Interactionalfunction
12)instrumentationalfunction
13)imaginativefunction
14)寒暄功能
15)元语言功能
16)Personalfunction
17)performativefunction
18)娱乐功能
19)信息功能
20)人际功能
6.ShortEssayQuestions
1)Whatarethefunctionsoflanguage?Exemplifyeachfunction.
2)Explainwhatthetermdualitymeansasitisusedtodescribeapropertyofhuman
language.
3)Islanguageproductiveornot?Why?
4)Whatislanguage?
5)Whatarethemajordesignfeaturesoflanguage?Pleaseexplainthreeofthemwith
examples.
KeytoChapterOne
1.Definethefollowinaterms
1)Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfully
distinct.Forinstance,thedifferencebetweenthesounds/p/and/b/isnotactuallyverygreat,but
whenthesesoundsarepartofalanguagelikeEnglish,theyareusedinsuchawaythatthe
occurrenceofoneratherthantheotherismeaningful.Thefactthatthepronunciationofthe
formspadandhadleadstoadistinctioninmeaningcanonlybeduetothedifferencebetweenthe
sounds/p/and/b/inEnglish.Eachsoundinthelanguageisthoughtofasdiscrete.Itis
possibletoproducearangeofsoundsinacontinuousstreamwhichareallgenerallylikethe
sounds4?/and/7?/.
2)“Designfeatures,,refertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthe
differencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyare
arbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeabi1ity.(3
分)
3)<4Arbitrariness^^meansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.A
dogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.
Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyarbitrary,becausethere
arecaseswherethereareoratleastseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkof
echoWords,like“bang","crash","roar",'whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,some
compoundsarenotentirelyarbitraryeither."Snow"and"storm“arearbitraryorunmotivated
words,while“snowstorm“islessso.Sowecansay“arbitrariness"isamatterofdegree.
4)Linguistsrefer“duality“ofstructuretothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,
onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedin
termsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lower
level,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhich
combinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhuanglinetal.,languageisasystemoftwo
setsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsof
language.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberof
semanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinite
numberofsentences.(Forexample,wehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!)
Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimal
communicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthishonor.
5)“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthat
onecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,
onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Language
itselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Peoplecanuselanguage,todescribesomethingthathadoccurred,is
occurring,oristooccur.Butadogcouldnotbarkforabonetobelost.Thebee'sSystemhasa
smallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.
6)Languageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthedetailsof
thelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityfor
languageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit"languageacquisitiondevice",orLAD)hasa
geneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneratherthana
geneticonelikethedog'sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannot
acquirelanguage.Thewolf-childrearedbythewolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf'sroaring
“tongue“whenhewassaved.Anditwasdifficultforhimtoacquirehumanlanguage.
7)Theimaginativefunctionreferstolanguageusedtocreateimaginarysystem,whether
theseareliteraryworks,philosophicalsystemsorutopianvisionsontheonehand,ordaydreams
andidlemusingsontheotherhand.Itisalsolanguageusedfbrsheerjoyofusinglanguage,
suchasababy'sbabbling,achanter'schanting,apoet'spleasuring.
8)Thepersonalfunctionreferstolanguageusedtoexpresstheindividual9sfeelings,
emotionsandpersonality.
9)Theheuristicfunctionoflanguagereferstolanguageusedinordertoacquireknowledge
andunderstandingtheworld.Theheuristicfunctioningprovidesabasisfbrthestructureof
knowledgeinthedifferentdisciplines.Languageallowspeopletoaskquestionsaboutthenature
oftheworldtheyliveinandtoconstructpossibleanswers.
10)Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedfbrhumancommunication.
2.MultipleChoice
1)-5):ACCCB6)-10):ACCBB
3.WordCompletion.
1)defining2)Descreteness3)productivityorcreativity4)metalingual5)culturally,instinct
orinheritance6)speech7)representational8)interactional;9)vocal;10)gramaticallymeaningful,
soundmeaningless;11)system;12)regulatory13)arbitrariness,duality,productivity,cultural
transmission,interchangeabi1ity,discreteness,displacement.14)sound;15)exhaustiveness,
economy,objectivity,consistency
4.TrueorFalseQuestions
1-5:FFTFF6-10:FFTFT11-15:FFTFT
5.GlossaryTranslation
1)personalfunction:人际功能
2)heauristicfunction:启发功能
3)ideationalfunction:概念功能
4)interchangeabi1ity:互换性
5)控制功能:regulatoryfunction
6)表现功自m:representationalfunctin
7)文化传递性:culturaltransmisssion
8)分离性:discreteness
9)区别性特征:designfeatures
10)不受时空限制的属性:displacement
11)Interactionalfunction:互动功能
12)instrumentationalfunction:工具功能
13)imaginativefunction:想象功能
14)寒暄功能:phaticfunction
15)元语言功能:metalingualfunctionormetafunctionoflanguage
16)personalfunction:自指性功能
17)performativefunction:表达功能
18)娱乐功能:recreationalfunction
19)信息功能:informativefunction
20)人际功能:interpersonalfunction
6.ShortEssayQuestions
1)Whatarethefunctionsoflanguage?Exemplifyeachfunction.
AccordingtoWangGang(1988:11),thefunctionsoflanguagecanbemainlyembodiedin
threeaspects,i)Languageisatoolofhumancommunication;ii)Languageisatoolwhereby
peoplelearnabouttheworld;iii)Languageisatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.
Asamatteroffact,differentlinguistshavedifferenttermsforthevariousfunctionsof
language.TheBritishlinguistM.A.K.Hallidayusesthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitial
functionsofchildren'slanguage:
(1)Instrumental
Theinstrumentalfunctionoflanguagereferstothefactthatlanguageallowsspeakerstoget
thingsdone.Itallowsthemtocontrolthingsintheenvironment.Peoplecancausethingstobe
doneandtohappenthroughtheuseofwordsalone.Animmediatecontrasthereiswiththe
animalworldinwhichsoundsarehardlyusedinthisway,and,whentheyare,theyareusedinan
extremelylimiteddegree.Theinstrumentalfunctioncanbeprimitivetooinhumaninteraction.
Performativeutterancessuchasthewordswhichnameashipatalaunchingceremonyclearly
haveinstrumentalfunctionsiftherightcircumstancesexist;theyareacts,e.g./namethisship
LibertyBell.
(2)Regulatory
Theregulatoryfunctionreferstolanguageusedinanattempttocontroleventsoncethey
happen.Thoseeventsmayinvolvetheselfaswellasothers.Peopledotrytocontrol
themselvesthroughlanguage,e.g.WhydidIsaythat?/Steady!/AndLetmethinkaboutthat
again.Languagehelpstoregulateencountersamongpeople.Languageprovidesdevicesfor
regulatingspecifickindsofencountersandcontainswordsfbrapprovingordisapprovingandfor
controllingordisruptingthebehaviorofothers.Itallowsustoestablishcomplexpatternsof
organizationinordertotrytoregulatebehavior,fromgameplayingtopoliticalorganization,from
answeringthetelephonetoaddressinginforeignaffairs.Itistheregulatoryfunctionoflanguage
thatallowspeoplesomemeasureofcontrolovereventsthatoccurintheirlives.
(3)Representational
Therepresentationalfunctionreferstotheuseoflanguagetocommunicateknowledgeabout
theworld,toreportevents,tomakestatements,togiveaccounts,toexplainrelationships,torelay
messagesandsoon.Thisfunctionoflanguageisrepresentedbyallkindsofrecord-keeping,
suchashistoricalrecords,geographicalsurveys,businessaccounts,scientificreports,government
acts,andpublicdatabanks.Itisanessentialdomainoflanguageuse,fbrtheavailabilityofthis
materialguaranteestheknowledge-baseofsubsequentgenerations,whichisaprerequisiteof
socialdevelopment.
(4)Interactional
Theinteractionalfunctionreferstolanguageusedtoensuresocialmaintenance.Phatic
communionispartofit.Thetermphaticcommunionintroducedbytheanthropologist
BronislawMalinowskireferstolanguageusedfbrestablishinganatmosphereormaintaining
socialcontactratherthanfbrexchangingfacts.Agreetingsuchashowareyou?isrelatively
emptyofcontent,andanswerslikefineorverywell,thankyouareequallyempty,becausethe
speakerisnotinterestedinthehearer'shealth,butrathertodemonstratehispolitenessandgeneral
attitudetowardtheotherpersonwhenhegivesaconversationalgreeting.
(5)Personal
Thepersonalfunctionreferstolanguageusedtoexpresstheindividual'sfeelings,emotions
andpersonality.Aperson'sindividualityisusuallycharacterizedbyhisorheruseofpersonal
functionofcommunication.Eachindividualhasa“voice“inwhathappenstohim.Heisfree
tospeakornottospeak,tosay,asmuchoraslittleashepleases,andtochoosehowtosaywhat
hesays.Theuseoflanguagecantellthelistenerorreaderagreatdealaboutthespeakeror
writer-inparticular,abouthisregionalorigin,socialbackground,levelofeducation,occupation,
age,sex,andpersonality.
Languagealsoprovidestheindividualwithameanstoexpressfeelings,whetheroutrightin
thefbnnofexclamations,endorsements,orcurse,ormuchmoresubtlythroughacarefulchoiceof
words.Manysocialsituationsdisplaylanguageusedtofosterasenseofidentity:theshoutingof
acrowdatafootballmatch,theshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings,thereactionsof
theaudiencetotelevisiongameshows,theshoutsofaffirmationatsomereligiousmeetings.For
example,thecrowdsattendingPresidentRegan'spre-electionmeetingsin1984repeatedly
shouted"Fourmoreyears!f,whichunitedamongthosewhosharedthesamepoliticalviews.
(6)Heuristic
Theheuristicfunctionreferstolanguageusedinordertoacquireknowledgeand
understandingtheworld.Theheuristicfunctioningprovidesabasisforthestructureof
knowledgeinthedifferentdisciplines.Insofarastheinquiryintolanguageitself,anecessary
resultisthecreationofametalanguage,i.e.alanguageusedtorefertolanguage,containingtenns
suchassound,syllable,word,structure,sentence,meaningandsoon.
(7)Imaginative
Theimaginativefunctionreferstolanguageusedtocreateimaginarysystem,whetherthese
areliteraryworks,philosophicalsystemsorutopianvisionsontheonehand,ordaydreamsand
idlemusingsontheotherhand.Theimaginativefunctionalsoallowspeopletoconsidernotjust
therealworldbutallpossibleworlds—andmanyimpossibleones.Muchliteratureisthemost
obviousexampletoservethisfunctionasanaccountofRobinsonCrusoeinthedesertedisland.
Theimaginativefunctionenableslifetobelivedvicariouslyandhelpssatisfynumerousdeep
artisticurges.
2)Explainwhatthetermdualitymeansasitisusedtodescribeapropertyofhuman
language.
Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayers-soundsandmeaning-simultaneously.This
propertyiscalledduality,or“doublearticulation”.Intermsofspeechproduction,wehavethe
physicallevelatwhichwecanproduceindividualsounds,liken,b,andi.Asindividualsound,
noneofthesediscreteformshasanyintrinsicmeaning.Whenweproducethosesoundsina
particularcombination,asinbin,wehaveanotherlevelproducingameaning,whichisdifferent
fromthemeaningofthecombinationinnib.So,atonelevel,wehavedistinctsounds,andat
anotherlevel,wehavedistinctmeanings.Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,:oneofthemost
economicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapable
ofproducingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations(relativelyfinitewordsandinfinite
numberofsentences)whicharedistinctinmeaning.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasduality,
orevercomesneartopossessingit.
3)Islanguageproductiveornot?Why?
(1)Languageisproductiveorcreative.(233)Thismeansthatuserscanunderstandand
producesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Everydaywesendmessagesthathavenever
beensentbefore,andweunderstandnovelmessages.Muchofthemwesayandhearforthefirst
time;yetthereseemsnoproblemofunderstanding.Forexample,thesentence,,Ared-eyed
elephantisdancingonthehotelbed^^mustbenewtoyouanditdoesnotdescribeacommon
happeningintheworld.Nevertheless,nobodyhasanydifficultyinunderstandingit.
(2)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappearto
behighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendand
receive.Forexample,gibboncallsarenotproductive,fortheydrawalltheircallsfromalimited
repertoire,whichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Beedancingisusedonly
toindicatefoodsources,whichistheonlymessagethatcanbesentthroughthedancing.
(3)Theproductivityorcreativityoflanguagepartially,originatesfromitsduality,becauseof
whichthespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,
mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.Theproductivityoflanguagealsomeansits
potentialtocreateendlesssentences.Itistherecursivenatureoflanguagethatprovidesa
theoreticalbasisforthispossibility.
4)Whatislanguage?
(1)Itisverydifficulttogivethisquestionasatisfactorydefinition.However,mostlinguists
wouldacceptatentativedefinitionlikethis:languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsused
forhumancommunication.(2)Languagemustbeasystem,sinceelementsinitarearranged
accordingtocertainrules;theycannotbecombinedatwill.Iflanguagewerenotsystematic,it
couldnotbelearnedorusedconsistently.(3)Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisno
intrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordpenandthethingweusetowritewith.Thefactthat
differentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforit(钢笔inChineseforinstance)speaksstronglyfor
thearbitrarynatureoflanguage.(4)Thisalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:wordsare
associatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention.(5)Wesaylanguageisvocalbecausethe
primarymediumissoundfbralllanguages,nomatterhowwelldevelopedaretheirwriting
systems.Allevidenceshowsthatwritingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenformsandthat
theyareonlyattemptstocapturesoundsandmeaningonpaper(6)Theterm“human“inthe
definitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman.specific;thatis,itisverydifferentfromthe
communicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.
5)Whatarethemajordesignfeaturesoflanguage?Pleaseexplainthreeofthem
withexamples.
(1)Displacementisoneofthedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothe
factthathumanlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarepresentornotpresent,realor
notreal,andaboutmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,
languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofitsusers.
Thisphenomenonisthoughtofas“displacement”,whichcanprovideitsuserswithanopportunity
tocommunicateaboutawiderangeofsubjects,freefromanybarrierscausedbyseparationin
timeandspace.Thatis,thefeatureofdisplacementcanenableustotalkaboutthingsandplaces
whoseexistencewecannotevenbesureof.Wecanrefertomythicalcreatures,demons,fairies,
angels,SantaClaus,andrecentlyinventedcharacterssuchassuperman.Thisfeatureisuniqueto
humanlanguage.Noanimalcommunicationsystempossessesit.Someanimalcallsareoften
utteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation.Forinstance,duringthematingseason,in
thepresentofdangerorpain,animalswillmakecalls.Oncethedangerorpainismissing,their
callsstop.
(2)DiscretenessThesoundsusedinlanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.Forexample,the
differencebetweenthesoundsbandpisactuallynotverygreat,butwhenthesesoundsarepartof
alanguagelikeEnglish,theyareusedinsuchawaythattheoccurrenceofoneratherthanthe
otherismeaningful.Thefactthatthepronunciationoftheformspackandbackleadstoa
distinctioninmeaningcanonlybeduetothedifferencebetweenthesoundspandbinEnglish.
Thispropertyoflanguageisdescribedasdiscreteness.Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedas
discrete.Itispossible;infact,toproducearangeofsoundsinacontinuousstreamwhichareall
generallylikethepandbsounds.However,thatcontinuousstreamwillonlybeinterpretedas
beingeitherapsound,orabsound(or,possibly,asanon-sound)inthelanguage.Wehaveavery
discreteviewofthesoundsofourlanguageandwhereverapronunciationfallswithinthe
physicallypossiblerangeofsounds,itwillbeinterpretedasalinguisticallyspecificand
meaningfullydistinctsound
(3)Languageisasystem.Itisorganizedintotwolevelssimultaneously.Wehavedistinct
soundsatthelowerlevel(soundlevel),whichisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichhav
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