欧盟企业在中国建议书（2024-2025）信息与通信技术工作组（英文）

2024/2025

EuropeanBusinessinChinaPositionPaper欧盟企业在中国建议书

InformationandCommunicationTechnologyWorkingGroup

KeyRecommendations

1.RemoveIndirectBarrierstoEuropeanInformationandCommunication

Technology(ICT)Companies’MarketAccessandtheirAbilitytoFullyContributetoMarketDevelopment

•ImplementmeasurestoimprovemarketaccessforEuropeanICTcompaniestoensurelong-termequaltreatmentintheChinamarket.

-Avoidanoverlyrestrictivedefinitionof‘madeinChina’inthecontextofgovernmentprocurement.

-IdentifyallICTmarketsegmentswheremarketaccessislackingorbiddingrulesareunfairforEuropeanUnion(EU)companies(especiallywithincreasingrequirementsonself-relianceandlocalisation)anddevelopactions—jointlydefinedbyChineseandEuropeanstakeholders—thataddressthekeychallengestodoingbusinessinChina.

-Reviewthestatusofmarketopennessandmarketshareregularly.

•EstablishanopenandeffectivemonitoringandcorrectionsystemforequalICTmarketaccessandbiddingrulesforEuropeanICTcompanies,withbilateralsponsorship,toaddressthecurrent,prominentissues.

2.AvoidBifurcationofSupplyChainsandEcosystemstoSecureForeign

SectionFour:Services

InvestmentandEmbedChinaMoreDeeplyintotheGlobalSystem

•Ensurethatregulatorycontrolsimproveoverallsupplychainresilience,insteadofpursuingself-sufficiencyattheexpenseoflong-terminterdependenciesandcooperationprospects.

•Relyoninternationallyharmonisedstandardstothelargestextentpossible,ratherthanimposingunduerestrictionsonboththeusageofsuchstandards,andthescenariosinwhichtheycanbeused.

•EnsuretechnologyneutralityinICTpolicies,regulationsandstandardstodriveinnovation,competitionandlong-termgrowth.

•Limitregulatorycontrolstowhatisstrictlynecessary,includingbyclearlydelineatingtheboundariesofconceptslike‘nationalsecurity’and‘criticalinformationinfrastructure’.

•Ensurethatcommercialmarketsarefreefromundueregulatorycontrolsandinterventionsbygovernmentauthoritiesandrelatedorganisations.

•Avoidexpandingthescopeofprocurement-relatedlocalisationprogrammestocommercialmarkets.

•Maintainconsistencyinmacro-policyorientation,especiallyregardingpoliciesdevelopedbygovernmentauthoritieswithdifferentsecurityanddevelopmentmandates.

3.DevelopandImplementCommercialCryptographyLaws,Regulations,

StandardsandConformityAssessmentSystemssothatTheyareClear,FairandConducivetoInternationalHarmonisation

•Allowtheadoptionofinternationalstandardsrelatedtocommercialcryptography.

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Europeanchamber中国欧盟商会

•Adopttheprimaryfunctiontestinfurtherrule-makingandintheroll-outofrelevantmechanisms.

•Limitthescopeofcommercialcryptographytesting,certificationandapplicationsecurityassessmenttocriticalinfrastructureinformation(CII),andadoptaholisticapproachinaddressingtheunauthorisedanddiscretionaryexpansionofthescopeofapplicationofsuchprogrammesacrossgeographiesandindustries.

•Clarifytherequirementsrelatingtotheexportcontrolofcommercialcryptography.

•Ensuretechnology-neutralandstreamlinedconformityassessmentprocessesforcommercialcryptography,andtheprotectionofintellectualproperty(IP)andtradesecrets.

•Define‘commercialcryptographyinmassconsumerproducts’as“cryptographyfeaturesincomponentsandproductsopenlyavailabletothepublic,thatcanbeeitherchargedorfree,forpersonalorbusinessuse,andwherethecryptographicfunctionalitycannotbemodifiedbytheenduser”.

•EnsurethatanyimplementingregulationsandstandardsarefullyinlinewiththeCryptographyLaw.

4.OpenupValue-addedTelecomsServices(VATSs)sectorforInternational

Companies

•ReducefurthertheNegativeListandallowincreasedinternationalparticipationintelecoms-andinternet-relatedsectors.

SectionFour:Services

•ContinuetoopenuptheTelecomServicesCatalogueandallowforeign-investedenterprises(FIEs)toobtainVATSlicences,particularlyforinternetresourcecollaboration(IRC),internet-protocolvirtualprivatenetworks(IP-VPNs),internetserviceproviders(ISPs),onlinedataprocessingandtransactionprocessingservices,andinformationservices.

5.CreateaPolicy,RegulatoryandStandardsSystemConducivetothe

SustainableDevelopmentofEmergingandFuture-orientatedIndustries

•Ensurethetimelyavailabilityofthe57–64gigahertz(GHz)bandforunlicenseduse.

•StrengthenEU-Chinaexchangesregardingspectrumregulation,includingbyintegratingspectrumtopicsinrelevantgovernment-to-governmentdialogues.

•Incorporategreendevelopmentmandatesintodevelopmentplansatanearlystageforemergingandfuture-orientatedindustries,andencouragetheadoptionofenergy-efficientandlow-carbontechnologies.

•Strengthenindustryparticipationinexploringthebestdatagovernanceapproachtoimprovetheavailability,qualityandinteroperabilityofdata.

•Increaseinternationalharmonisationofthegovernanceframeworksforemergingandfuture-orientatedindustries,andidentifyEU-Chinasynergiesinkeyfields.

•Adoptarisk-basedapproachtoregulatingrelevantindustries,sothatlow-risktechnologiesandapplicationsarefreefromunduerestrictions,includingmarketentrylimitations.

CybersecuritySub-workingGroup

1.EnsurethatChineseCybersecurityLegislationDoesNotCreate

DiscriminatoryMarketAccessBarriers

•Define‘nationalsecurity’asnarrowlyaspossibleanddifferentiateitfrom‘commercialsecurity’

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EuropeanBusinessinChinaPositionPaper欧盟企业在中国建议书

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inaclearmanner.

•NarrowthescopeofindustriessubjecttoforeigninvestmentsecurityreviewandscenariossubjecttotheCybersecurityReviewMeasures(CSRM).

•RefrainfromimposingunduerestrictionsontheuseofICTproductsandservicesinlevelthreenetworksundertheClassifiedCybersecurityProtectionSystem(CCPS).

•Limittheapplicabilityandinfluenceofnon-bindingcybersecurityregimes,insuchamannerthattheydonotgobeyondbindinglegislation.

•Minimisethescopeofmandataryproductcertificationonlytowhatisabsolutelynecessary,toreducemarketaccessbarriers.

•Promotemutualrecognition,adoptionandrelianceuponapplicableinternationalstandardsandglobalindustrybestpractices.

•Ensurethatmultinationalcorporations’(MNCs’)intellectualpropertyandtradesecretsareprotected.

2.ContinuetoOptimiseChina’sCyberandDataSecurityPoliciestoEnsure

theyFacilitateIndustry,ForeignInvestmentandGlobalExchanges

•Givefurtherguidanceonexemptionsandnecessitydeterminationsandavoidoverlystringentinterpretations.

•Clearlyandnarrowlydefinethescopeofimportantdata,refrainfromclassifyingproductionandR&Ddataatlargeas‘importantdata’,andavoidconflatinglargevolumesofpersonalinformationandsensitivepersonalinformationwithimportantdata,oratleastreviseupthevolumethresholds.

•Provideasufficientgraceperiodbetweenanyfuturereleaseofimportantdataidentificationguidelinesandtheirimplementation.

SectionFour:Services

•StrengthenEuropeanUnion(EU)-Chinadialogueondataandcybersecurity,andidentifyconcreteareasforcooperationwherepossible.

•Avoidmandatingthedisclosureofinformationrelatedtounmitigatedvulnerabilitiestopartiesirrelevanttothecoordinatedvulnerabilitydisclosure(CVD)process.

•Ensureacoordinatedandunifiedapproachforoversightandenforcementamongtheauthoritiesinvolved.

•ClearlydelineatetheboundariesbetweenCriticalInformationInfrastructure(CII)andnon-CII,andavoidinterpretingandapplyingrelevantrequirementsinanexpansivemannertocoverbroadernetworks.

3.EnsureProportionality,IndustryInvolvement,GlobalHarmonisationand

Non-discriminationwhenFuture-proofingSecurityLegislation

•ProvideinatimelymanneranopenandtransparentplatformthatallowsEuropeanbusinessestofullycontributetothedraftingofforward-lookingsecuritylegislation.

•GivemoreconsiderationtothebusinessandoperationalneedsofMNCs.

•Ensuresecurityregulationsareappropriateandcommensuratewiththerisk.

•Increaseinternationalcooperationandcollaborationamonggovernments,regulatorybodies,industryassociationsandcybersecurityexperts.

•Supportglobalcybersecurityinitiativesandframeworkstoprovideguidanceandbestpracticesforbusinesses.

•Ensurethatforward-lookingsecuritylegislationisfreefromunduemarketaccessimpediments.

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SectionFour:Services

Europeanchamber中国欧盟商会

RecentDevelopments

Emergingandfuture-orientatedindustries

The2024GovernmentWorkReportemphasisedthedevelopmentof“newqualityproductiveforces”,aconceptthatenvisagesincreasingoverallproductivitythroughthemodernisationofChina’sindustrialbase,andthepromotionofinnovationinthedigitaleconomyandotherfuture-orientatedindustries.1&2Withtheinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT)industryasacornerstoneofthisstrategy,EuropeanICTcompaniesseeampleopportunitiesahead.

Onesuchfuture-orientatedindustryisartificialintelligence(AI).The2024GovernmentWorkReportstatesthatChinawill“stepupresearchanddevelopment(R&D)andapplicationofbigdataandAI[and]launchanAIPlusinitiative”.

TheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology(MIIT)andthreeothergovernmentagencieshavealreadypublishedguidelinesonstandardisingtheAIindustry.Theguidelinesenvisagethat,by2026,morethan50nationalandindustryAIstandardswillhavebeendeveloped,andthatChinawillhaveparticipatedinthedraftingofover20internationalstandards.3TheMIITalsoplanstoestablishanewAIstandardisationtechnicalcommittee.4

On9thMay2024,theStateCouncilissuedits2024LegislativeWorkPlan,citingthedraftArtificialIntelligenceLawasalegislativeprojectinprogress.5

Spectrum

On4thJune2023,theMIITannouncedthatChinawouldcontinuetoenhancethewholeindustrychains

1FullText:ReportontheWorkoftheGovernment,Xinhua,StateCouncil,updated13thMarch2024,viewed22ndMay2024,<

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2Theconceptof'newqualityproductiveforces'wasfirstputforwardbyPresidentXiJinpinginSeptember2023,beforebeingmentionedagainduringtheDecember2023CentralEconomicWorkConference,andthenfurtherpromotedinthe2024GovernmentWorkReport:Xictionary:Newqualityproductiveforces,Xinhua,6thMarch2024,viewed22ndMay2024,<

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3PubliclySolicitingOpinionsontheGuidelinesfortheConstructionofaComprehensiveStandardisationSystemfortheNationalArtificialIntelligenceIndustry(DraftforOpinion),MIIT,17thJanuary2024,viewed15thMay2024,<

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4AnnouncementonPlanofEstablishinganAIStandardizationTechnicalCommittee,MIIT,1stJuly2024,viewed17thJuly2024,<

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5CircularoftheGeneralOfficeoftheStateCouncilontheIssuanceoftheLegislativeWorkPlanoftheStateCouncilfortheYear2024,StateCouncil,9thMay2024,viewed15thMay2024,<

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forbothmobileandopticalcommunication,planfornext-generationinternetandotherfrontierareas,andpromotesixth-generation(6G)technologyR&D.6On27thJune2023,theMIITupdateditsRadioFrequencyAllocationProvisions,effectiveasof1stJuly2023.7Itcontainsseveralnotablerevisions,includingtheallocationofthe6425–7125-megahertz(MHz)frequencybandforinternationalmobiletelecommunications(IMT),includingfifth-generationmobiletechnology(5G)and6G,makingChinathefirstcountrytodoso.Italsomadeclearthatthe79–81gigahertz(GHz)frequencybandwillbereservedforapplicationslikeautomotiveradaronaprioritybasis.WithChinanowatacriticalstageinthelarge-scaledevelopmentof5Gapplications,priorityisnowbeinggiventotheevolutionof5G,supporting5G-A8developmentandincreasing6GtechnologyR&D.9

Overthepastyear,theMIITalsopublishedspectrumregulationsrelatingtoultra-widebandradioequipment,civiliandronesandradiofrequencyidentification.

TheICTindustryisnowawaitingtheidentificationofadditional,large,andcontiguousmillimetrewavefrequencyrangesforunlicenseduse.Formoreinformation,pleaserefertokeyrecommendation(KR)5.

Datasystemsandinfrastructure

On25thOctober2023,ChinainauguratedaNationalDataBureau(NDB),administeredbytheNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission.TheNDBisresponsiblefor:advancingthedevelopmentofdata-relatedinstitutions;coordinatingtheintegration,sharing,developmentandapplicationofdataresources;andadvancingthedevelopmentoftheDigitalChinaInitiative,thedigitaleconomyandadigitalsociety.10Anumberofpolicieshavealreadybeenpublishedinthisregard,suchas:

6Graph:TheMIITwillcomprehensivelypromotetheresearchanddevelopmentof6Gtechnology,Xinhua,5thJune2023,viewed9thMay2024,<

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7RadioFrequencyAllocationProvisions,MIIT,27thJune2023,viewed10thMay2024,<

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85G-A(5G-Advanced),whichisbasedontheevolutionandenhancementof5Gnetworkinfunctionandcoverage,isakeyinformationtechnologytosupportthedigitalupgradingofindustriessuchas3Dinternet.

9HowtoviewthesituationofChina'sindustrialdevelopment?Howtopromotethedevelopmentofsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises?JinZhuanglong,MinisterofIndustryandInformationTechnology,talkedaboutpromotingnewindustrialisationonthe"Minister'sCorridor",MIIT,9thMarch2024,viewed20thMay2024,<

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10SpotlightontheofficialinaugurationoftheNationalDataBureau,ChinaNewsAgency,25thOctober2023,viewed17thMay2024,<

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On31stDecember2023,theNDBand17otherdepartmentsjointlyissuedtheThree-YearActionPlanforDataElements(2024–2026),whichaimstopromotetheintegrationofdatain12keyareas,suchassmart

manufacturing,smartagricultureandtechnologicalinnovation,acceleratetheapplicationofdigitaltechnologiesandpromotethedigitaltransformationofindustries.11TheNDBalsomaderepeatedhigh-levelpledgestooptimiseChina’sdata-relatedregulations.

On8thOctober2023,sixdepartments,includingtheMIITandtheOfficeoftheCentralCyberspaceAffairsCommission,jointlyunveiledanactionplanforthehigh-qualitydevelopmentofcomputingpowerinfrastructure.12TheplanforeseesthatChina’stotalcomputingpowerwillhavereachedover300exaflopsby2025,andcallsforthedevelopmentofefficient,smart,greenandlow-carboncomputingpower.

Telecommunications

InApril2024,theMIITissuedtheCircularonthePilotSchemefortheFurtherOpeningofValue-addedTelecomServicestoForeignInvestment,aimingtoeliminate,undercertainconditions,foreignownershiprestrictionsinsixdomesticvalue-addedtelecomservices(VATSs)acrossfourkeypilotregions—Beijing,Shanghai,HainanandShenzhen.13ThesixVATSsare:1)internetdatacentres(includingsub-serviceinternetresourcescollaborationservices);142)contentdeliverynetworks;3)internetserviceproviders;4)onlinedataprocessingandtransactionprocessing;5)informationpublishingplatformsandinformationdeliveryservices(excludingservicesrelatingtointernetpublishing,internetradioandtelevision,andinternet

11CircularoftheseventeendepartmentsontheissuanceoftheThree-YearActionPlanforDataElements(2024–2026),CyberspaceAdministrationofChina,5thJanuary2024,viewed8thMay2024,<

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12CircularoftheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyandsixotherdepartmentsontheissuanceoftheActionPlanforHigh-qualityDevelopmentofComputingPowerInfrastructure,MIIT,8thOctober2023,viewed20thMay2024,<

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13CircularonthePilotSchemefortheFurtherOpeningofValue-addedTelecomServicestoForeignInvestment,MIIT,10thApril2024,viewed10thMay2024,<

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14InternetResourceCollaborationService(IRCS)referstothedatastorage,internetapplicationdevelopmentenvironment,internetapplicationdeploymentandoperationmanagementservicesprovidedtousersthroughtheinternetorothernetworksintheformofreadyaccess,on-demanduse,readytoexpand,collaborativesharing,etc.TheIRCSlicenceisparticularlyimportantforenterprisesengagedincloudcomputing,cloudhosting,webhosting,serverleasingandotherbusinesses.

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EuropeanBusinessinChinaPositionPaper欧盟企业在中国建议书

culturemanagement);15and6)informationprotectionandprocessingservices.

CommercialCryptography

On7thOctober2023,theStateCryptographyAdministration(SCA)releasedtwoadministrativemeasures,onebeingtheAdministrativeMeasuresontheSecurityAssessmentofCommercialCryptographyApplications(Measures).16Thesemeasuresweredesignedtosupporttheroll-outoftherevisedCommercialCryptographyRegulationsreleasedon1stJuly2023.17AccordingtotheMeasures,operatorsofnetworksandinformationsystemsthatare“requiredbylaws,administrativeregulationsandotherrelevantprovisionsofthestate”tobeprotectedbycommercialcryptography,alsoreferredtoas“importantnetworksandinformationsystems”,shallcarryoutregularsecurityassessmentofcommercialcryptographyapplications.Thisisahighlycontroversialrequirementthatcouldpotentiallyleadtofurthermarketaccessbarriers,asdiscussedinKR3ofthispaper.

KeyRecommendations

1.RemoveIndirectBarrierstoEuropean

ICTCompanies’MarketAccessandtheirAbilitytoFullyContributetoMarketDevelopment

Concern

Thelackofreciprocalmarketaccess,coupledwithincreasedlocalisationrequirementsinkeyICTmarketsegments,hasstartedtoresultinsomeEuropeancompaniesde-prioritisingtheChinamarketandjeopardisesthefutureofEuropeanUnion(EU)-ChinaICTindustrycollaboration.

Assessment

DuetotheirmanyyearsofoperatinginChina,EuropeanICTcompaniesaredeeplyawareoftheimportanceofsustainablemarketaccessforplayersacrossindustrysegmentsandalongthevaluechainto

15Internetculturemanagementreferstoactivitiesthatprovideinternetculturalproductsandtheirservicestomakeprofit,bycharginginternetusersorobtainingbenefitsbymeansofe-commerce,advertisementorsponsorship.Theymainlyinclude:1.musicandentertainmentproducts;2.gameproducts;

3.worksofart;4.performances;5.animationandfilmproducts;6.operationofinternetculturalproductsincybercafés;and7.exhibitionsandcompetitions.

16AdministrativeMeasuresontheSecurityAssessmentofCommercialCryptographyApplications,SCA,7thOctober2023,viewed17thMay2024,<

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17CommercialCryptographyRegulations,StateCouncil,24thMay2023,viewed7thMay2024,<

/zhengce/zhengceku/202305/content_6875928.

htm

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SectionFour:Services

SectionFour:Services

Europeanchamber中国欧盟商会

developandthrive.Inthisregard,thecurrentdynamicofthemobilemarketlandscapeisemblematicof

theunfortunateimpactofindirectbarriersonmarketaccess.

Theglobalsuccessofthemobileindustryreliesonharmonisedstandards.Inthisfield,ChinaandtheEUhavemadethemostcontributionsandhavecooperatedonbothfourth-generation(4G)andnow5Gstandards,tomutualbenefit.However,asChina’scommercialdevelopmentof5Gexploded,18Europeanfirms'marketsharedroppedfromaround30percentin4Gtolowsingledigitsin5G—adropsosharpitcannotbeexplainedbycommercialreasonsalone.Accordingtothelatestdatapublishedin2024,19Europeanindustry’saccumulated5GmarketshareinChinawasjusteightpercentin2023,comparedto92percentfordomesticvendors.Meanwhile,Chinesevendorshadwonmorethan30percentoftheEuropean5Gmarketbytheendof2022,representingafour-foldimbalance.20

ThisincreasingimbalanceisasignificantconcernandhasseriouslyweakenedtheimportanceoftheChinamarkettoEuropeaninvestorsinkeyICTmarketsegments,ledtoade-prioritisationofChinainglobalinvestmentplanning,andjeopardisedtheoutlookforEU-ChinaglobalcollaborationinthebroaderICTindustry.

Lookingbeyondthemobileindustry,localisation(ordomesticsubstitution)requirementshavebecomeaseriousfaircompetitionchallengeandincreasinglyade-factomarketaccessbarrierforEuropeancompaniesdoingbusinessinChina.Inmanyindustrysectors,companiesarefacinggrowinglocalisationrequirements,whicheithermandatedomesticsupplychainsupportbygivingitsignificantweightinginthetenderscoringsystemor,moreseverely,byspecifyingarequiredlocalisationpercentageinthequalification

18In2019,Chinabeganamassivedeploymentof5Gtechnology,andnowhastheworld’slargestandmostadvanced5Gnetwork.AccordingtoMIITstatistics,bytheendof2023,Chinahaddeployed3.34million5Gbasestations,ayear-on-yearincreaseof46percent,andhad805million5Gsubscribers.China’stotal5Ginvestmentin2023amountedtoChineseyuan(CNY)190.5billion:InterpretationoftheICTIndustryStatistics2023,MIIT,24thJanuary2024,viewed7thMay2024,<

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19Marketshareof5GbasestationmanufacturersinChinain2023,Statista,June2023,viewed24thJune2024,<

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20Rühlig,T,andTurcsányi,R,EvaluatingPublicSupportforChineseVendorsinEurope’s5GInfrastructure,GermanCouncilonForeignRelations,August2023,viewed10thMay2024,<

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criteria.Althoughlocalisationrequirementsvaryamongdifferentindustries,thecommonlyobservedtrendisforincreasedlocalisationrequirements,whichmaybecomeanexistentialthreattosegmentsoftheEuropeanICTindustryinthefuture.

Addedtotheseexistingconcernsisthependingdefinitionof‘madeinChina’ingovernmentprocurement,astherearefearsthatitmaybedefinedinanoverlyrestrictivemanner.

TheICTWorkingGroupbelievesthatwhileindustrialpolicysupportforindigenousindustriesisunderstandablewithinreasonableandproportionatelimits,commercialmarketsmustbefreefromunduelocalisationmandates.Ensuringmarketaccessbygivingallcompaniesfairandequalopportunitiestocontributetomarketdevelopmentfullyiscrucialtomaintainingandfurtherpromotingvitalinterdependencies.

Recommendations

•ImplementmeasurestoimprovemarketaccessforEuropeanICTcompaniestoensurelong-termequaltreatmentintheChinamarket.

-Avoidanoverlyrestrictivedefinitionof‘madeinChina’inthecontextofgovernmentprocurement.

-IdentifyallICTmarketsegmentswheremarketaccessislackingorbiddingrulesareunfairforEUcompanies(especiallywithincreasingrequirementsonself-relianceandlocalisation)anddevelopactions—jointlydefinedbyChinese

andEuropeanstakeholders—thataddressthekeychallengestodoingbusinessinChina.

-Reviewthestatusofmarketopennessandmarketshareregularly.

•EstablishanopenandeffectivemonitoringandcorrectionsystemforequalICTmarketaccessandbiddingrulesforEuropeanICTcompanies,withbilateralsponsorship,toaddressthecurrent,prominentissues.

2.AvoidBifurcationofSupplyChainsand

EcosystemstoSecureForeignInvestmentandEmbedChinaMoreDeeplyintotheGlobalSystem

Concern

Bifurcationofsupplychainsandecosystemsrisksleadingtoadismantlingoftheglobalisedsystem,

resultinginfragmentedmarkets,reducedefficiencyandhighercosts.

Assessment

Overthepasttwoyears,China’stopleadershiphasgivenseveralpositivesignalsincludingsuccessivehigh-levelguidelinestoattractforeigninvestmentandcreatealevelplayingfield.21ThesesignalsprovidetheidealcontextfortheEUandChinatojointlyfacilitategrowthandsustainablemarketaccess,asadvocatedinKR1.

Inthisrespect,theICTWorkingGroupwouldliketohighlightthattreatingself-relianceastheoverridingandabsolutepriority,ratherthanoneofmanymeanstoachievesupplychainresilience,risksfurtherdismantlingtheglobalisedsystem.InadditiontothelocalisationmandatesmentionedinKR1,anumberofotherchallengesexistinmoretechnicalformsandcouldfurtherbifurcateICTsupplychainsandecosystems:

•SomeICTstandardsdifferfrominternationallyharmonisedones.Restrictionsmaybeimposedeitherontheusageofinternationalstandards,oronthescenariosinwhichtheycanbeused.

•Certainpolicies,regulationsandstandardscontainspecifictechnologymandates.Thelackoftechnologicalneutralityhindersinterconnectivity,technologicalinnovation,competitionandlong-termgrowth.

•Astheboundariesofconceptssuchas‘nationalsecurity’and‘criticalinformationinfrastructure’,aswellasbetweentheconceptsof‘criticali