2024年政策作为通向清洁空气的途径：为什么系统的、跨部门的方法很重要报告（英）

Cross-SectorPolicyActiononAirPollution:apilotcasestudy

centringhealth

Anopportunitytostrengthenpoliciesthatmitigatehealthequityimpactsofpoorairqualityfromlifesciencebuildingdesign,constructionanddemolition.

Thispilotstudyexploredopportunitiestostrengthenpoliciesthatpreventandreduceoutdoorairpollutionfromlifesciencebuildingdesign,constructionanddemolition,focusingpredominantlyontheUKandSingapore.Leveragepointstocreatesystemicchangewereexploredwithinthethreeoverarchingthemesof1)governanceand

accountability,2)healthequity,and3)anexpandedplacebasedapproach.Considerationwasalsogiventotheimportanceoftacklingtherootcausesofpoorairquality,highlightingthelifesciencesectorasbeinginastrongpositiontoinfluencewidereachingchangeacrossmultiplesectorsincludingconstructionandhealthcare.

Recommendationswereprovidedtolifesciencecompanies,constructioncompaniesandNGOsandphilanthropiesworkingonairpollutionandhealth.Casestudiesweredescribedtoinspirebusinessestoscaleupbestpractice

actions,andtakeawiderpreventativeapproachtoinnovationandpolicyactionthatimprovesairqualityandhealthoutcomes.

1.Introduction

Airpollutionisoneofthebiggestcausesofdeathglobally,accountingforanestimated

18%oftotalglobaldeathsin

2018–alittlelessthan1outof5

.Beingcitedbythe

EnergyPolicyInstituteattheUniversityofChicago

as“the

greatestexternalthreattohumanlifeexpectancyontheplanet”ithasbeencomparedtothedangerofsmoking,andismoredangerousthanalcoholorunsafewater.Urgentpolicyactionsateverylevelareneededtopreventtheseriskstohumanhealth,especiallywithinexposedandvulnerablecommunities.Yetpolicyactionstodatearesiloedwithin

eachsectorandoftenfailtoplacehumanhealthandhealthequityinthecentre.

Inthispilotstudy,weaimedtoexploreopportunitiesformoreintegratedenvironmentalandhealthpolicy

mechanismsthatpreventandreduceoutdoorairpollutingemissionsacrossthebuildingsandlifesciencesectors.Weconducteddeskresearchtoreviewoutdoorairqualitypolicies,guidelinesandregulationsintheUKand

Singapore,andinterviewed10predominantlyUKbasedstakeholders,seeappendixtable1.

Afteraninitialscopingexercise,wefocusedourresearchonthedesign,constructionanddemolitionphaseofthebuilding'slifecycle.A

systemschangeapproach

wasappliedtoidentifyemergentthemes,makeconnections,

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identifyevidenceordatagapsandconsolidatethefindingsintorecommendationsforlifescienceandbuildingscompanies,andNGOsandphilanthropiesworkingonairpollutionandhealth.

2.TacklingtheRootCause

“Theworldisacomplex,interconnectedfinite,ecological-social-psychological-economicsystem.Wetreatitasifitwerenot,asifitweredivisible,separable,simpleandinfinite.Ourpersistent,intractable,globalproblemsarisedirectlyfromthismismatch.”Donella

Meadows,PioneeringAmericanenvironmentalscientist,AuthorofThinkinginSystems.

Thescopeofthisreportandtheresearchthatunderpinsitisintentionallytightlydefined:examiningoutdoorair

pollutionpolicymechanismsattheintersectionofthelifescienceandthebuildingsectors,withaspecificfocusontheconstructionphaseofbuildings.However,inexploringaspecificissue,thesystemiccontextmatters.In

examiningthebarriersorenablersforchangewemustlookatrootcausesofwhytakingactiononairpollutionatthisintersectionmightbeinhibited.

Anumberofsystemiccurrentbarriersandpotentialfutureleversofchange,orleveragepoints,emergedthroughtheresearchandinterviewsforthisproject.Leveragepointsareplacestointerveneinasysteminordertoshapenew

outcomes.

DonellaMeadows,aleadingsystemsthinker,describesninemainleveragepoints

andordersthemfrom9-leasteffective,to1-mosteffectiveateffectuatinglastingtransformativechange.

9.Constants,parameters,numbers(subsidies,taxes,standards).

8.Regulatingnegativefeedbackloops.

7.Drivingpositivefeedbackloops.

6.Materialflowsandnodesofmaterialintersection.

5.Informationflows.

4.Therulesofthesystem(incentives,punishments,constraints).

3.Thedistributionofpowerovertherulesofthesystem.

2.Thegoalsofthesystem.

1.Themindsetorparadigmoutofwhichthesystem—itsgoals,powerstructure,rules,itsculture—arises.

Wehaveincludedrecommendationsacrosstheseleveragepointsinthisreportandwestronglyrecommendfutureactionsspanacrossthenineleveragepoints.Wheneffortisappliedacrossmultipleleveragepoints,theconditionsforchangebecomemorelikely.

Intheresearchforthisproject,atthemostmacrolevel,thedominanceofGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)asthe

measureofprogress,speakstothemindset(leveragepointone)outofwhichourglobalsystems(leveragepointtwo)havearisen.Thegoalsofoursystems-asmeasuredbyGDP-drivebehavioursthatcanresultinnegativesocialandenvironmentaloutcomesateverylevelofthesystem,fromindividualconstructionworkerhealthimpacts,forexample,

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throughtoprocurementpoliciesfavouringthelowestcostoption,throughtoshareholdersdrivingbusinessactivitiesthatmaximiseprofitwhilstpotentiallycausingdamagingeffects,throughtonationalgovernmentsprioritising

stimulatingtheeconomy(e.g.throughnewmajorconstructionprojects)whilstpotentiallyignoringthepotentialsocialandenvironmentalharmsthatmaybecaused.

Ultimately,thedominanceofGDPinhibitsprogressonimprovingairqualitybecauseprofitsandgrowthtakepriorityoverenvironmentalandsocialimpacts,includingairquality,andtheimpactsonplanetaryandhumanhealth.The

truecostsoftheexternalitiesof,forexample,cleanair,arenotcostedintoourglobaleconomicmodels,resultinginbehavioursthatdonotvaluetheseexternalities.

Interviewparticipantsinthemostproactive,maturebusinessesontheissuebeingexaminedspokeaboutthecriticalimportanceoftheirleadershipandshareholdersbeingwillingtotakepurpose-drivendecisions,atthepotential

expenseofprofitmaximisation.Thisdemonstratestheimportanceofleadershipmindsets(leveragepointone)thatarepreparedtosetorganisationalgoals(leveragepointtwo)thatencompassawiderdefinitionofprogressandpositiveimpactthanthedominantparadigmofGDP.InourwiderworkatForumfortheFuturewefrequently

encounterleaderswhoareawarethatthelimitstotheirambitionsforpositiveimpactareconstrainedbythedominant

operatingcontextofGDP.Thiscollectivefrustrationhasthepotentialtobeacollaborativeforceforchange,ifnetworked,connectedandorientedtowardsinfluencingdifferentsystemicgoals.

Inordertomaximisethelikelihoodoftransformativechangeontheintersectionbeingexaminedwetherefore

stronglyrecommendtakingadeliberatesystemicapproach.Whilstmorespecificrecommendationsarecontainedwithintherelevantsectionsofthisreport,thesystemicrecommendationstotacklerootcausebarriersinclude:

●Engagingwiththoseorganisationswhoareadvocatingfor,andshaping,alternativestoGDPapproaches,includingthe

WellbeingAlliance

,andthe

DoughnutEconomicsActionLab

(DEAL):andcollaboratingwiththesetoensurethatairqualityindicatorsareintegratedintoemergingframeworks(leveragepointtwo).

●Identifyingpilotsatthecity-levelthataretaking“beyondGDP”approaches,tocreatecollaboration

opportunitiestoensurethatairqualityindicatorsareintegratedintopilotdesignandevaluatione.g.MiltonKeynesandAmsterdam(leveragepointsthree,four,fiveandnine).Thisspeakstotheplace-based,wholeecosystem

approachexploredinsection7below.

●FororganisationsintheUK,leveragingthe

UKGovernmentSocialValueAct2021

,identifyingopportunitiestoinfluencethespecificinclusionofairqualityindicators-includinginthebuildingconstructionphase-inthe

commissioningofpublicservices(leveragepointsfiveandnine).Identifyingothersimilarinitiativesinothermarketsisalsorecommended.

●WithintheCleanAirAlliance,identifythoseprivatesectoractorswhoareexperiencingtheconstraintson

theirambitionstohavepositivesocialandenvironmentalimpact,causedbyourglobaleconomicsystemsand

measures,andfacilitatecollectiveadvocacy.Forexample,insupportofthe

BetterBusinessAct

whichisaimingto

shiftthe

UKCompaniesAct2006

toensurethateverybusinessalignstheirinterestswiththoseofwidersocietyandtheenvironment(leveragepointsone,twoandthree).Or,the

GoodBusinessMatters

campaign,aimingtobringina

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newsupplychainlawtoholdbusinessesaccountableforupholdinghumanrightsandprotectingtheenvironment(leveragepointsone,twoandthree).

3.ThePotentialoftheLifeScienceSectorasaLeverforChange

Inadditiontobeingworthover£94billiontotheUKeconomy,thelifesciencesectorconveyswiderbenefitson

healthbybringingmedicinestopatientsthatneedthem.In2023theUKgovernmentannouncedamulti-million

investmentinLifeSciences,the“

LifeSciforGrowth”package

.Yetpharmaceuticalscontribute

25%ofscope3GHG

emissions

withintheUKhealthcaresector,andcompaniesthemselvesareincreasinglyrecognisingtheroletheymust

haveinreducingunintendedharmsonhumanhealthfromtheirdirectoperationsandsupplychain.Leading

pharmaceuticalcompaniesarecollaboratingunderthe

SustainableMarketsInitiative

toacceleratetheindustry’sdecarbonisationandthereisevidencethatprogressisbeingmade,although

scope3remainschallenging

.

Otherexternalpressuresareforcingtheindustrytochange.New

EUmedicinesregulation

beingdevelopedis

expectedtostrengthenmandatedinformationprovidedbycompaniesontheenvironmentalimpactofmedicines-whatthismeansinpracticeisnotyetclear.

Medicinestenders

arebeginningtoincludeenvironmentalimpactasaprocurementcriteria.

However,thelifesciencesectordoesnotyetgenerallyestimateorreportairpollutingemissions.Exceptionsarelargeglobalcompaniesthataremembersofthe

AllianceforCleanAir

includingGSK,Haleon,Biogenand

Accenture.

Despiteitslackofmaturityinrelationtoairqualitymitigation,thelifesciencesectorhasstrongpotentialtobeacriticalleverforsystemicchange.Ithasawidereachingsphereofcontrolandinfluenceacrossmultipleother

systems,seefigurebelow.Indeedthenumberofemployeeswithintheindustryitselforacrossitssupplychainare

likelytorunintothemillions,andalmosteveryindividualworldwidedependsuponaccesstohealthcare,uponwhichaccesstomedicineshaveaprofoundinfluence.

Forexample,

JohnsonandJohnson

rankedasthesecondlargestlifesciencecompanybyrevenue,has130,000

employees,250operatingcompanies,sellsinalmosteverycountryintheworldandworkswithmorethan78,000suppliersglobally.Itisclearthatthebuildinginfrastructurerequiredtosupporttheseoperationsissignificant-seetable2intheappendixfortop5companiesbyrevenue.Accommodatingtheworkplacesofaroundhalfamillionemployees,the5largestlifesciencecompaniescanbecollectivelyviewedasagloballydispersedcitywithwidepotentialinfluenceandimpactfromcorporatelevelpoliciesandregulationsforbuildings.

GSK

hasdisclosedthat8%ofitscarbonfootprintcanbeattributedtoscope1and2emissionsfromrunninglabs,factoriesandcommercialoffices.Theybelievethatsignificantbenefitsonairpollutingemissionsarelikelyinparallel

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withacompany-wideshifttocleanerenergysources,andarealsointheprocessofcreatingglobalpoliciestoavoiduseoffuelsthatcouldworsenairqualitywherepossible.

Whilsttheshifttocleanenergysourcesreducesairpollutingemissionsfrombuildingsmaintenanceanduse,itdoesnottackleairpollutionfrombuildingsconstructionordemolition,whicharealsosignificantcontributorstopoorair

quality.IntheUK,constructionisresponsiblefor

9%ofNOxemissionsand12%ofPM2.5emissions

,andunlike

othersectorse.g.agricultureorotherindustries,oftengeneratesairpollutingemissionswherecommunitiesof

peopleinurbancentresarelocallyexposedtohealthimpacts.Thiscaninturnexacerbatehealthinequitiesforthe

constructionworkersthemselvesandlocalcommunities,includingbusinessemployees.Companiesthereforeneedtoprioritiseanairqualitystrategyinrelationtobuildingsconstructionanddemolition.Governanceandaccountability

actionsthatthelifesciencesectorcantakeareoutlinedinsection4.

Inarecent

reportbyMedCity

,thechroniclackofspaceforlifesciencestogrowinLondonwashighlighted.Theincreasingclusteringoflifescienceactivitiesinurbanareasismotivatedbyadesiretoco-locatewithinnovators,researchersandinvestors,toaccesstalentsources,toaccesstransportlinksandtoattractandretaintalentthroughlocalamenities.Minimisingtheimpactofairpollutionduringconstructiontopreventadditionalhealthimpactsonlocalcommunitiesiscritical.Inaddition,anopportunitymayexisttogoevenfurthertowardspurposefuldesignoflifescienceparkstoproactivelyimproveairqualityandaddressdeeplyingrainedhealthinequitiesevenbeyonditsphysicalboundaries,inconsultationwithlocalpeople.Thistheme-takingaplacebasedapproachtobenefitlocalcommunities-isfurtherexploredinsection6.

Finally,itisofnotethatinapproachinglifesciencecompaniestointerviewforthisproject,wefounditchallengingtoengageforavarietyofreasons.Itappearsthatcorporatesustainabilityteamsareworkingnearmaximumcapacity

andstrugglingtotakeonadditionalworkstreams.Onealternativeapproachtotacklingairpollutionmitigationwithinthelifesciencesectoristoexpandstakeholderengagementtoincludecorebusinessunitssuchasmedicalaffairs,

marketaccessandmarketingthatworkataproductorportfoliolevel.Integratingairqualityanditsimpactsonhealthintoproductandportfoliostrategieslinkedtocorporatepurposecouldcreateadditionalpositivemomentumwithintheorganisation,seethecasestudyBfromHaleoninsection7.

“Becauseofour(corporatepurposeof)everydayhealthforhumanity,whatis

clearhereisthatthereisanopportunityforourbrandstobemorepurposefulinwhattheydo…oncetheseniorleadershavethatmindset,itcarriesthroughinallthepartsoftheorganisation.”InterviewwithHaleon.

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Sphereofinfluenceofthelifesciencesector

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4.GovernanceandAccountability

Recommendations

LifeScienceCompanies

●Engageanddevelopthecapabilityandunderstandingwithinleadershipteams(Boards,C-Suites,divisionalleaders)aroundsocialandenvironmentalimpact,alignedwithcompanypurpose-visionaryleadershipisakey

enablerthatflowsdowntotacticalchoicepointssuchasadoptionofambitiousvoluntarystandards(leveragepointone).

●Ensureclearlinesofresponsibilityandaccountability,andassociatedreportingmechanismstoensurestandardsonairpollutionarebeingadheredtoacrosscompanyoperations(leveragepointfour).

●Adoptvoluntarystandards-suchasLEED,BREEAMandBCorpscertification(leveragepointnine).

●Advocate-throughpublicaffairsteams-fornationalregulationincountriesofoperation,inorderto“raisethefloor”ofprivatesectoroperations(leveragepointstwo,three,four).

●Developcompany-wideglobalpoliciestomitigateairpollutionassociatedwithbuildingdesign,

construction,use,anddemolition.Incorporateairqualitymitigationandmonitoringactionswithinprocurementcriteriaforcontractingofdevelopersandconstructioncompanies(leveragepointfour).

ConstructionandDeveloper

●Engageanddevelopthecapabilityandunderstandingwithinleadershipteams(Boards,C-Suites,divisionalleaders)aroundsocialandenvironmentalimpact,alignedwithcompanypurpose-visionaryleadershipisakey

enablerthatflowsdowntotacticalchoicepointssuchasadvocatingforambitiousvoluntarystandardswithclients(leveragepointone).

●Advocateforevolutioninleadinggreenbuildingcertificationschemestostrengthenandmandatecriteriaonoutdoorairpollutionduringconstructionanddesign(leveragepointnine).

●Ensureclearlinesofresponsibilityandaccountability,andassociatedreportingmechanismstoensurestandardsonairpollutionarebeingadheredtoacrosscompanyoperations(leveragepointfour).

●Advocate-throughpublicaffairsteams-fornationalregulationincountriesofoperation,inorderto“raisethefloor”ofprivatesectoroperations(leveragepointstwo,three,four).Thisremovestheuncertainelementof

whetheraclientwilladoptvoluntarystandards.

NGOsandphilanthropies

●Engagewithleadinggreenbuildingcertificationschemes-suchasLEEDandBREEAM-tostrengthenandmandatecriteriaonoutdoorairpollutionduringconstructionanddesign(leveragepointnine).

●EngagewithBLabs(BCorpcertificationscheme)toinfluencetheadoptionofexternalairpollutionindicators(leveragepointnine).

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●ConsiderapproachingexistingB-Corporationcompaniestoencouragethemto“gobeyond”requirementstotackleairpollutionfrombuildingconstructioninordertosetgoodexamplesandtodevelopcasestudiesthatcanbeadoptedbyotherorganisations(leveragepointstwo,four,nine).

●Engagewithnationalgovernmentstoinfluencespecificregulationonexternalairpollutionindicatorsthatrelatetobuildingconstruction(leveragepointnine).

Rationale

Keytotheeffectivenessofpolicy-basedapproachesandvoluntarystandardsisthegovernanceandaccountabilitythat

underpinstheimplementationofthem.Withoutcleargovernanceprocessestoeffectuate,monitorandensurecompliance,eventhemostdetailedandspecificpolicyorstandardwilllikelyfail.

Inrecentyears,governanceasaroutetotransformationhasemergedasoneofthemost

criticaldriversofchange

.Governanceencompassesthe“hard”formsandstructures(suchashierarchies,policiesandprocedures,budgets),andthe“soft”culturesandpractices(suchasrelationships,leadershipvision,cultureandidentity).Seevisualbelow.Thehardandsoftformsofgovernanceinteractconstantly,andneedtobecoherentandalignedinordertobemosteffective.Thesehardandsoftformsofgovernancecanbeoverlaidwiththeleveragepoints,withmindset-the

deepestleverofchange-sittingwithinthesoftforms,andbeingkeytoshapingthehardformsofgovernance.

Governance-atmultiplelevels-cameoutstronglyinthisresearchascriticaltosuccessintakingactiononexternal

airpollutioninthebuildingconstructionphase.Acomprehensive,multi-levelapproachtogovernanceand

accountabilityemergedasthemosteffectivewayofensuringthatgovernancesupportsdeliveryofpolicyandstandards.Theseencompassnationalregulation,voluntarystandards,andorganisationalpolicies.

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Nationalregulation

Whilstvoluntarystandardsandthepoliciesofambitious,leadingorganisationswithstrongcommitmentstopositivesocialandenvironmentalimpactareimportantfor“raisingtheceiling”,nationalpolicyandregulationiscriticalfor

“raisingthefloor”-forsettingthethresholdforcompliance.Voluntarystandardscanshapethetrajectoryofambitionfornationalregulationbutareinsufficientinisolationiftheyarenotalsocoupledwithstrongnationalregulation.

“Anythingthat’svoluntaryisdifficultasthere’sthenavaluedecisiontobemade.Ifyou’re

strugglingontheviabilityofaffordabilitythenyoucanopttoforegovoluntarystandards.Itneedstobelegislation(tobemandated).BiodiversityNetGainisaclassicexampleofhowavoluntarystandardhasnowbecomestatutory.”Interviewwithaconstructioncompany.

Voluntarystandards

TheLEED(LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign)andBREEAM(BuildingResearchEstablishment

EnvironmentalAssessmentMethod)standardswerecitedasthetwomostimportantbuildingstandardcertification

schemes.Intervieweesfrombothhealthcareandconstructionsectorsspokeaboutmeetingthesevoluntarystandardsasaproxyindicatorfortakingactiononexternalairpollution.However,intervieweesfromtheconstructionsector

alsoindicatedthattheywereunawareofexternalairpollutionindicatorsineitherBREEAMorLEEDduringthe

constructionphasespecifically,demonstratingapotentialgapandopportunitytoincludeandshapespecificexternalairpollutionindicatorsinthisphase(andpotentiallyinotherphasesbeyondthebuildinglifecyclephase,suchasinretrofittinganddemolition).Overall,thereisanopportunitytocollaboratewithBREEAMandLEEDtoshapespecificindicators.

“Externalairquality(criteria)areminimal,mostlyonresponsibleconstructionpractices,

measuringthingslikefuelusage,electricityusage,transportemissionsandcompliancewithconstructionschemes.”Interviewwithaconstructioncompany.

WhatwasunanticipatedwasthepotentialimportanceoftheBCorpscertificationasamechanismforcreatingholisticorganisationalchange,includingonairpollution.Twooftheorganisationswhoprovidedinterviewees-Chiesi

(biotech)andPrimeplc(developer)wereBCorpscertifiedandspokeabouthowthereinforcingfeedbackloopof

theambitiontobeanorganisationdeliveringsocialandenvironmentalbenefithadledtothedesiretobecomeacertifiedBCorps,whichinturnhadshapedspecificpoliciesandpracticeswithintheorganisationduetothe

stringentnatureofcertification.

“TheBetterBuildingProgrammewasbornoutofarequestforhowtomeasuresustainability

relatedtobuildings.Wewantedtogobeyondmeasuringto(instead)setastandard.Wethen

neededtodeveloptheinternalpoliciesandtherightroleswhowouldensurespecificationswere

Policyasaroutetocleanerair10

carriedthrough.ThestrongcommitmentoftheBoardtoshare-value-theintersectionbetweenbusinessandthesocialvalue(waskey).Allofthiswasacatalyst.”InterviewwithChiesi.

“OurBoardandtheChiefExecutivehadinitiatedBCorp.Youneedtohavevisionaryleadership.Andintheabsenceofthis,youneedlegislation.Raisingtheflooriskeyandtheceilingcanstillbehigher.It’simportantthatpeopleknowwhythey’redoingthings.Buteveniftheydon’tthenthestandardsneedtobeclear.”InterviewwithPrimeplc.

AswithBREEAMandLEED,interviewees(andsubsequentresearch)indicatedthatBCorpscertificationdoesnot

specificallyincludeindicatorsonexternalairpollutionduringtheconstructionphase,buttheapproachisintendedtoencompassacompany’sentiresocialandenvironmentalimpactsoitbecomesprobablethatthesedimensionswouldbeconsideredduringthecertificationprocess.However,thislackofspecificityalsooffersNGOsandphilanthropiesanopportunitytoworkwithBLabsonspecificindicators.

Organisationalpolicies

Withmultinationalcompaniesoperatinginmultipleregulatoryjurisdictions,ambitionandconsistencyfor

positivesocialandenvironmentalimpactmaybesetattheorganisationallevel,ratherthanonlyaligningwithvariablenationalstandards.Intervieweesspokeabouttheimportanceofclearandconsistentorganisationalstandards.Chiesiishighlightedasabestpracticecasestudyinsection7below,casestudyA.

“Weworkwithmanydifferentconstructioncompaniesandwesetthestandardinthetender.Aconstantisourminimumrequirements-theyarealwaysthesame.Ourcompanypoliciesaresetirrespectiveofnationalpolicies(inthedifferentlocations).”InterviewwithChiesi.

Similarly,whetherornotnationalregulationorvoluntarystandardsareinplace,atthepracticalimplementationlevelclearlinesofaccountabilitywithinanorganisationarekeytoensuringadherence.Intervieweesspokeaboutreportinglines,mandatedfrequencyofvisits,andmandatedsitecheckindicatorslinkedtopollution.

“Forsiteconstructionactivitywehaveparticularmitigationmeasuresthatwerequire.Therearetwovisitspermonthtoensurepracticesarebeingadheredto.Theresponsibilitysitswiththe

LocalManagerthatappointsaProjectManagerwhoisresponsiblefordocumentingthat

standardsarebeingmet.Whilsttheconstructioncompanyisresponsibleforcarryingoutthework,aChiesiProjectManagerisresponsibleformonitoring.”InterviewwithChiesi.

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5.HealthEquity

Recommendations

Lifesciencecompanies

●Educatehealthcareprofessionals,consumersandpatientsonthehealthrisksofairpo