(08-12)五年考研英语真题(后附答案解析)

(08-12)五年考研英语真题(后附答案解析)

2012年考研英语

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankand

markA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankand

markA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportant

issuerecently.Thecourtcannot_1_itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_2_

justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat

_3_thecourt'sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.

JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindof

activitymakesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartial

judgments.Partoftheproblemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.Atthe

veryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitself_6_tothecodeofconductthat_7_totherest

ofthefederaljudiciary.

Thisandothersimilarcases_8_thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla

_9_betweenthecourtandpolitics.

TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_10_havingauthorityapartfrom

politics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_ll_theywouldbefreeto_12_those

inpowerandhavenoneedto_13__politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesigned

tosetlawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely_14_.

Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedin

fundamentalsocial_15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocial

policydecisions,thelawit_16_isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplit

alongideologicallinesaresoeasily_17_asunjust.

Thejusticesmust_18_doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymaking

themselves_19_tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobe

seenasseparatefrompoliticsand,_20_,convincingaslaw.

1.[A]emphasize[B]maintain[C]modify[D]recognize

2.[A]when[B]lest[C]before[D]unless

3.[A]restored[B]weakened[C]established[D]eliminated

4.[A]challengedfB]compromised[C]suspected[D]accepted

5.[A]advanced[B]caught[C]bound[D]founded

6.fA]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone

7.[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies

8.[A]evade[B]raise[C]deny[D]settle

9.[A]line[Blbarrier[C]similarity[D]conflict

10.[A]by[B]as[C]though[D]towards

11.[A]so[B]since[C]provided[D]though

12.[A]serve[B]satisfy[C]upset[D]replace

13.[A]confirm[B]express[C]cultivate[D]offer

14.[A]guarded[B]followedfC]studied[D]tied

15.[A]concepts[B]theories[C]divisions[D]conceptions

16.[A]excludes[B]questions[C]shapes[D]controls

17.[A]dismissed[B]released[C]ranked[D]distorted

18.[A]suppress[B]exploitt[C]address[D]ignore

19.[A]accessible[B]amiable[C]agreeable[D]accountable

20.fAJbyallmesns[B]atallcosts[C]inaword[D]asaresult

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.Answerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosing

A,B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationand

halfforcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.It

usuallyleadstonogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointhe

Club,TinaRosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethrough

whatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethepowerof

groupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblytheword.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocial

cureinaction:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRage

AgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,an

HIV-preventioninitiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafe

sexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritique

ofthelamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeer

pressureforhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingof

psychology.^^Daretobedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!"pleadsonebillboard

campaignaimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothing

morethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-healthadvocates

oughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.

Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.

JointheClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationof

thesocialandbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themost

glaringflawofthesocialcureasit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywell

forverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.Evidencethat

theLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesislimitedandmixed.

There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.

Anemergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegative

ones-spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtle

formofpeerpressure:weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselect

ourpeergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It'sliketheteacher

whobreaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behaved

classmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat'stheproblemwithasocialcure

engineeredfromtheoutside:intherealworld,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingour

ownfriends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas

[A]asupplementtothesocialcure

[B]astimulustogroupdynamics

[C]anobstacletoschoolprogress

[D]acauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould

[A]recruitprofessionaladvertisers

[B]learnfromadvertisers,experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto

[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

[B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

[D]producealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors

[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends

[B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit

[D]canproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis

[A]harmfull[B]desirable[C]profound[D]questionable

Text2

Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,a

majorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlast

weekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabideby

thestrictnuclearregulations.

Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnot

challengetheconstitutionalityofVermont'srulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofa

desperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It'sa

stunningmove.

Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationbought

Vermont^onlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionof

receivingstateapprovalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfrom

stateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiring

thatanyextensionoftheplanfslicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature'sapproval.

Then,too,thecompanywentalong.

EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimply

didn'tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartial

collapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystem

leakage,raisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy's

management-especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthe

pipe.EnragedbyEntergy'sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyear

againstallowinganextension.

Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalid

becauseofthe2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatory

powerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereasthe

SupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclear

power,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhow

farthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchwork

regulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptits

word,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.

ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalready

sodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthere

shouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergy

runs11otherreactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationin

Plymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederal

permissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatory

Commission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhat

promisesfromEntergyareworth.

26.Thephrase“renegingon”(Line3.para.l)isclosestinmeaningto

[A]condemning.

[B]reaffirming.

[Cldishonoring.

[D]securing.

27.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,Entergyintendedto

[A]obtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.

[B]seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.

[C]acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.

[D]getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.

28.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits

[A]managerialpractices.

[B]technicalinnovativeness.

[C]financialgoals.

[D]businessvision

29.Intheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltest

[A]Entergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.

[B]thematureofstates9patchworkregulations.

[C]thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.

[D]thelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues.

30.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat

[A]Entergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.

[B]theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.

[C]EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.

[D]Vermont'sreputationmightbedamaged.

Text3

Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaiting

tobeobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodto

carryouttheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequently

followsanambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannot

escapethecontextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeandinterest

influencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthe

subsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,and

self-deceptionabound.

Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similarto

newlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutiny

andacceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthe

credibilityprocess,throughwhichtheindividualresearcher'sme,here,nowbecomes

thecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthe

startingpoint.

Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectual

credit.But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappens

next.Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchers

makediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthe

publicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes;

andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryand

possiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthe

community,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefs

aboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividual'sdiscovery

claimintothecommunity'scrediblediscovery.

Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificwork

tendstofocusonsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincomplete

orincorrect.Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatis

alreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,

newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobeimportant

andconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeandpotentialmodificationor

refutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequentlyprovokesdisbelief.

NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyioncedescribeddiscoveryas

“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought."But

thinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmay

notchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaims

tobeacceptedandappreciated.

Intheend,credibility“happens“toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthat

correspondstowhatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthe

mind."Wereasontogether,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoning

andeachother'sconceptionsofreason.”

31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedby

its

[A]uncertaintyandcomplexity.

[B]misconceptionanddeceptiveness.

[C]logicalityandobjectivity.

[D]systematicnessandregularity.

32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires

[A]strictinspection.

[B]sharedefforts.

[C]individualwisdom.

[D]persistentinnovation.

33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit

[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.

[B]hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.

[C]hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.

[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists.

34.AlbertSzent-Gyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat

fA]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.

[B]discoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.

[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.

[D]scientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.

35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?

[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

[B]CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

[D]ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresent

civilservant.WhenHoffa'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneinten

Americangovernmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2009thenumber

ofunionistsinAmerica'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersinthe

privatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%

ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.

Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions,thriving.First,theycanshut

thingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyare

mostlybrightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershavea

universitydegree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirties

gobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslongbeen

associatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshispositionto

votesfrompublic-sectorunions.

Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareof

thePublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetis

patrolledbyunions.Theteachers9unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAon

prisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.

Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthaninthe

privateone.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshave

repeatedly“backloaded“public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodest

butaddingtoholidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,

wherecharterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Even

thoughthereisplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemost

importantvariable,teachers,unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesand

promotinggoodones.

Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclamp

down.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScott

Walker,thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsuffer

underthecurrentsystem,too.

JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofculture

inWesterncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.

TheonlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearare

universitysportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers'fatpay

packetshaveattractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnotreward

highachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemforAmerica.

36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat

[A]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.

[B]JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.

[C]unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.

[D]thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.

37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?

[A]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

[B]Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.

[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

[D]Public-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris

[A]illegallysecured.

[Blindirectlyaugmented.

[C]excessivelyincreased.

[D]fairlyadjusted.

39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions

[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.

[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.

[C]maybeabaniertopublic-sectorreforms.

[D]aredominantinthegovernment.

40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof

[A]disapproval.

[B]appreciation.

[C]tolerance.

[D]indifference.

PartB

Directions:

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,

choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.

Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.Markyouranswers

onANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowand

realisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthana

brown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentor

twotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,

entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunction

asatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,piano

andradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41)

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethat

servesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceof

praiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotread

withcaution.(42)1callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonot

realisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassive

consumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputersto

uploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirds

makenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworld

downloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthen

turnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculpture

andarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,literature,religionand

philosophy.(43)

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuck

indownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidof

productionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightly

largergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentage

remainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthat

televisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.

(45)

Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundthe

conceptof^stickiness"-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

[A]Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumanculture

andultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequires

greatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefining

constituentofhumanity.

[B]Applicationslike,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,words

andothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoadd

stickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.

[C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillennium

theyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsof

peopleeveryday.

[D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetween

downloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-

whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.

[E]Thechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilarityto

oneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplaced

byCDplayers.

[F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthe

pasthalf-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasingle

medium-television-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.

[G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversethe

flow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningful

uploading.

PartC

Directions:

Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsinto

Chinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10

points)

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthe

scientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.

Newton'slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferent

phenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework.

(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,

andseeksatheoryofeverything-asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.ltis

becominglessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhe

dimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremains

amajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciences

too.(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommon

originsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedto

moreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtship

ritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapstheworld's

languages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedby

universalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenable

ustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitin

evolutionaryorcognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublished

onlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandand

hiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwoprevious

attemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.

ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,who

suggestedthathumansarebornwithaninnatelanguage-acquisitioncapacitythat

dictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldthe

entirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,whichiswhychildrencanlearnitso

quickly.

(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachto

universalityidentifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguage

whichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraints

Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytrees

thatbetweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky,sgrammar

shouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthe

pathwaytrackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrong

co-dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherofthese

patternsisborneoutbytheanalysis,suggestingthatthestructuresofthelanguages

arelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversals

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