2023水制氢技术白皮书

Waterfor

©IRENAISBN:978-92-9260-526-Bluerisk,AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates.

©IRENAIRENAISBN:978-92-9260-526-引用：IRENA和Bluerisk(2023)，用于氢生产的淡水国际可再生能源机 ABOUTABOUTTheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)isanintergovernmentalorganisationthatsupportsenergy,includingbioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solarandwindenergy,inthepursuitofsustainabledevelopment,energyaccess,energysecurityandlow-carboneconomicgrowthandprosperity.关于国际可再生能源机构（IRENA）是一个政府间组织，支持各国向可持续能源未来过渡，并作为国际合作的主要平台、卓越中心以及可再生能源政策、技术、资源和金融知识的宝库。IRENA促进各种可再生能源ABOUTABOUTinthefaceofemergingwaterchallenges.关于BlueriskCentreandauthoredbyEmanueleBianco(IRENA),TianyiLuo(Bluerisk),andDivyamNagpal(ex-IRENA).AnetaConnell(Ecolab),LorenzoRosa(CarnegieInstitutionforScience),ChaoZhangandYinshuangXia(TongjiUniversity),providedtechnicalcontributionstothereport.MarinaMelnikovaandYuryMelnikov(Mylonastars)providedusefulcontributionsandobservations.Thereportbenefitedfromthereviewsandcommentsofexperts,includingAlistairWyness,RachaelRaid(BP),NitinBassi(CEEW),YuZhang,ZiyanSha(ChinaHydrogenEnergyIndustryPromotionAssociation),CristianCarraretto,RobertoGonzales(EBRD),AnetaConnell,EmilioTenuta(Ecolab),MassimoSantarelli(PolytechnicUniversityofTurin),AlejandroLongueira(RolandBerger)andSmeetaFokeer(UNIDO).PublicationsupportwasprovidedbyFrancisFieldandStephanieClarke(IRENA).ThereportwaseditedbyFayreMakeig,withdesignprovidedbyElkanodata.Thispublicationandthematerialhereinareprovided“asis”.AllreasonableprecautionshavebeentakenbyIRENAtoverifythereliabilityofthematerialinthispublication.However,neitherIRENAnoranyofitsofficials,agents,dataorotherthird-partycontentprovidersprovidesawarrantyofanykind,eitherexpressedorimplied,andtheyacceptnoresponsibilityorliabilityforanyconsequenceofuseofthepublicationormaterialherein.TheinformationcontainedhereindoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsofallMembersofIRENA.ThementionofspecificcompaniesorcertainprojectsorproductsdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyIRENAinpreferencetoitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationoffrontiersorboundaries.

天一（Bluerisk）·纳加尔（IRENA）撰写。IRENA···安奈塔·康奈尔（Ecolab）、洛伦佐·罗萨（卡内基科学研究所）、张超和夏银霜（同济大学··（Mylonastars）提供了有用的贡献和观察。沙子言（中国氢能产业促进协会）CristianCarrarettoRobertoGonzales（欧洲复兴开发银行）AnetaConnell、EmilioTenuta（Ecolab）、MassimoSantarelli（都灵理工大学）、AlejandroLongueira（罗兰贝格和SmeetaFokeer（联合国工业发展组织）。FrancisFieldStephanieClarke（国际可再生能源机构）FayreMakeigElkanodataTableof 目 Executive ChapterIntroductiontothehydrogen-water ChapterAreviewofwaterquantityincommercial-scalehydrogen Chapter ChapterDeep-diveanalysesofnorthernChina,theGulfand ChapterConclusionsand

术语 执行摘 章 氢水关系导论章 Chapter全球氢气生产的用水足迹和风险第四章对中国北方、海湾和欧洲的深入分析结论和建 参考文 附 --PAGE10-PAGE10Figure Figure

Figure图

不同制氢技术的平均用水量和用水强度对 Figure Figure

图 特定工艺的用水量示意 图 生产和冷却所需取水量占氢气生产总用水需求的份 Figure Figure

FigureFigure

不同氢气生产技术的平均取水量和用水强度对 典型电解项目的氢气转化效率与取水量和用水强度之间的关 Figure Figure underthe1.5°CFigure Figure

Figure2.5典型氢气生产项目、热电厂和市政的年取水 Figure3.11.5°C情景下当前和预计的未来全球氢气生产 Figure3.2全球氢气生产按路径分的当前和预计的淡水取水 Figure Figure Figure todayandin2040Figure andregionin2040Figure

FigureFigureFigureFigure

2040年全球水资源压力状况和绿氢、蓝氢项目位 按水资源压力水平划分的全球当前和计划的绿氢、蓝氢生 20402040年按水资源压力水平和地区划分的全球当前和计划的 产氢煤化工企业和黄河流域的水资源压力水 Figure

图 由于煤制氢，黄河流域的年取水量和用水量，按省份划 Figure Figure BasinunderfourscenariosFigure Figure

图 氢气生产煤化工企业的分 图 煤炭制氢的年取水量和消耗需 图 海湾合作委员会国家的氢能工 图 海湾合作委员会国家当前的氢能生产及未来预 Figure intheGulfCooperationCouncilcountriesFigure Figure Figure Figure Figure Table

FigureFigureFigure图FigureFigure表

海湾合作委员会国家氢气生产的当前和预计海水取水和 欧洲氢能项目的概 欧洲按生产技术划分的水压力图和运营及计划中的氢能项 欧洲当前的氢气生产和预 欧洲氢气生产的当前和预计未来淡水取水和消费需 Table

表 当前和预计的淡水取用和消 用于氢气生产（十亿立方米），2050Table

Table

淡水取用和消耗强度数据来 Box

Box Box

什么是水资源压力 anionexchangemembrane auto-thermalreforming steammethanereforming solidoxideelectrolysercellsUnitsof cubic

AEMATRCCS碳捕CCUSGCC海GHGH2PEM质子PVSDGSMR水SOEC固态氧化物电解池GWkgkt千吨L升m3立方米Mt Blowdownwater:WaterdrainedintentionallyfromcoolingsystemstopreventmineralCycleofconcentration:Ameasureofthebuild-upofdissolvedmineralsincoolingsystems.ThecycleiscalculatedbycomparingtheconcentrationofaparticulardissolvedsolidinthewatercomingoutofacoolingsystemtoitsconcentrationinthewaterflowingintotheDeionisedwater:Atypeofhighlypurifiedwaterthatdoesnotcontainanyatoms,ionsormolecules.Deionisationremovesdissolvedsubstanceslikesodiumchloride,minerals,carbondioxide,organicpollutantsandvariousothercontaminantsfromwater.Makeupwater:Thewateraddedbackintoacoolingsystemtoreplacewaterlostduetoevaporation,leaks,etc.Permeaterate:Inmembrane-basedwatertreatmentsystems,theratioofthevolumeofwaterpassingthroughthemembranetothetotalquantityofrawwater.lake,groundwater)foruse.Waterwithdrawal/consumptionintensity:Thequantityofwaterwithdrawnfororconsumedinthegenerationofaunitofaproduct(e.g.amegawatthourofenergy,amegatonneofhydrogen).Waterconsumption:TheportionofwithdrawnwaterthatisnotreturnedtotheWaterstress:Measuredusingtheratioofthetotalwaterwithdrawaltotheavailablerenewablefreshwatersupply.Itshouldbecalculatedatawatershedscale.Waterstressposessignificantriskstohumanandenvironmentalwell-beingandisaproxyforwatercompetitionamongsectorsanduses.

排污水：衡量冷却系统中溶解矿物质积累程度的指标。浓缩倍数是通过比较冷却一种高度纯净的水，不含有任何原子、离子或分子。去离子过程能从水补充水：渗透率：取水量：指从水源（如河流、湖泊、地下水）指为生产单位产品（如一兆瓦时的能源、一兆吨的氢气）而抽取或水消耗量：水压力：EXECUTIVE

Executive

Theenergysectoristhelargestwateruserofallindustrialsectors.Waterisrequiredinmanyofitsprocesses,fromfuelextractiontoelectricitygeneration.Asseenintherecentthesector.Andthedisruptionsarelikelytocontinueandtobecomeevenmorefrequent,especiallyasextremeweathereventsintensifyamidachangingclimate.Toaddressthetorenewableenergysources,whichconsumelesswaterthantraditionalfossilfuels.Cleanhydrogenhasemergedasaviablealternativeinthefightagainstclimatechange.disruptionstoproduction.Allhydrogenproductiontechnologiesrequirewaterasaninput.Waterisneedednotonlyinproductionbutalsoforcooling.Thewithdrawalandconsumptionofwaterforcleanhydrogenproductionhavebeendebated,yettoooftenthediscussionsarenotinformedbyin-depthknowledgeofthesestill-nascenttechnologies.seekstoanswersomeofthesequestions.HowmuchwaterdoesahydrogenplantactuallyThisreportreviewsthewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsofvariousofscalingupcleanhydrogenproduction.AveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensityandrangesarevisualisedinFigureS1.Greenhydrogenisthemostwaterefficientofallcleanhydrogentypes.Itisfoundthatonwithsteammethanereforming–carboncapture,utilisationandstorage(SMR-CCUS),

2022这份报告由国际可再生能源机构（IRENA）BlueriskS1绿色氢气是所有清洁氢气类型中最节水的。研究发现，质子交换膜（PEM）电解平均17.5（L/kg）。碱性电解紧随其后，用水强度为22.3L/kg‑碳捕获、利用和储存（SMR‑CCUS）32.2L/kg（ATR）‑CCUS24.2L/kgWATERFORHYDROGEN

FIGURES1Acomparisonofaveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesbyhydrogenproductiontechnology

S1Averagewaterintensity Coalgasification-Electrolysis-Electrolysis-Withdrawal Consumptionthesedatapoints.Forbluehydrogen,thecoolingrequirementsforCCUSsystemsareincluded.ForPEMandATR,availabledatapointsarelimitedsincethesetechnologiesarerelativelynew–thusthemuchsmallerrangesofvalues.ATR=autothermalreforming;CCUS=carboncapture,utilisationandstorage;

Withdrawal Consumptionthesedatapoints.Forbluehydrogen,thecoolingrequirementsforCCUSsystemsareincluded.ForPEMandATR,availabledatapointsarelimitedsincethesetechnologiesarerelativelynew–thusthemuchsmallerrangesofvalues.ATR=autothermalreforming;CCUS=carboncapture,utilisationandstorage;Coalgasificationisbyfarthemostwaterintensiveofavailabletechnologies;itwouldbeabout60%moreintensiveifequippedwithCCUS.Coalgasificationhasawaterwithdrawalrequirementofabout50L/kgandconsumes31L/kg,onaverage–roughlytwicePEM’swaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirements.EquippedwithCCUS,coalgasification’swithdrawalaswellasconsumptionrequirementscouldfurtherincreaseto80.2and49.4L/kg,respectively.Acoalgasificationhydrogenplantproducing237kilotonnes(kt)ofhydrogenperyearandequippedwithCCUSwouldwithdrawabout19millioncubicmetres(m3)ofwaterannually;thisvolumeofwatercouldsupporthalfthewaterdemandofthecityofLondonforanentireyear.

煤制气是目前所有技术中用水强度最高的；如果配备CCUS，其用水强度将增加约60%。50L/kg31L/kgPEMCCUS80.2190（m3）的水；这一水量可以满足伦敦全年一半的用水需求。EXECUTIVE

Waterisrequiredasaninputforproductionandasacoolingmediumforalltypesofhydrogenproduction.Dependingonthetechnology,theshareofwithdrawalforcoolingcanrangefrom14%to92%.Theshareofwaterwithdrawalforcoolingisthelowestforgreyhydrogenproduction,atabout14%.Greenandbrownhydrogen’ssharesare56%and52%,respectively.Bluehydrogenproductionrequiresmorewaterforcooling,duetothesignificantwaterrequirementsofCCUSsystemsforheattransfer.Coolingcanaccountforupto92%ofthetotalwithdrawalrequirementofbluehydrogen,accordingtodatafromtheNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratoryintheUnitedStates.However,moreevidenceisneededbeforeageneralproduction-coolingratiocanbedeterminedwithoutForevery1percentagepointincreaseinelectrolysisefficiency,thewaterwithdrawalaswellasconsumptionrequirementsofgreenhydrogenproductionlessenbyabout2%.Thisisprimarilybecause,forthesametypeofhydrogenproductiontechnology,themoreenergyefficientthesystemis,thelesswasteheatneedstobetransferred;thismeanslesswaterisrequiredforcooling.Whatwillbetheglobalimpactofcleanhydrogen?projectedfutureglobalhydrogenproduction.TheanalysisisbasedonIRENA’s1.5°CScenario,whichprojectssubstantialgrowthinhydrogenproductionby2050.

14%到92%不等。冷却用水份额最低的是灰氢生产，约为14%。绿氢和褐氢的份额分别为56和52%。由于碳捕获、利用与封存（CCUS）系统在92%。然而，在确1费需求将减少约2%。这主要是因为，对于同一种IRENA）1.5°C2050WATERFORHYDROGEN

year;thisaccountsfor0.6%oftheenergysector’stotalfreshwaterwithdrawal.AsillustratedinFigureS2,greyhydrogenproductionaccountsforabout59%oftheglobalfreshwaterbluehydrogen.Freshwaterwithdrawalsforglobalhydrogenproductioncouldmorethantripleby2040andincreasesix-foldby2050,comparedwithtoday.DrivenbythesignificantexpansionFIGURES2Currentandprojectedfreshwaterwithdrawalforglobalhydrogenproduction,bypathway

2.20.6%。如图S2所示，灰氢生产约占全球制氢淡水取用量的59%，褐氢占40%，其余来自绿氢2040205020407320501210.620402.4S2

(billionm)(billionm)

Brown

Grey

Blue H2

Brown

Grey

Blue H2to75%by2050.Moderategradualincreasesinelectrolysisefficiency(7.5percentagepointsforalkaline

员会国家）SMR‑CCUSATR‑CCUS‑CCUS，ATR‑CCUS2050年逐渐增75%CCUSPEM电解，假设PEM205075%。假设电解效率适度逐步提高（7.5百分点，PEM4.5）Lewis等人（2022年）2中蓝氢的冷却和生产份额。ATR自热重整；CCUS碳捕获、利用和储存；H氢；PEM质子交换膜；SMR蒸汽甲烷重整。EXECUTIVE

AndthelocalAlthoughthewaterconsumedforhydrogenproductionwillnothaveasignificantimpactglobally,theimportanceofconsideringlocalwatercontextswhenplanninghydrogendevelopmentcannotbeoverstated,especiallychronicwaterriskssuchaswaterstress.Morethan35%oftheglobalgreenandbluehydrogenproductioncapacity(inoperationandplanned)islocatedinhighlywater-stressedregions.UsingtheAqueductWaterRiskIndiaislikelytohave99%ofitshydrogencapacityinextremelywater-stressedareasby2040,whileChinaandtheEU-27alsofacesignificantwaterstresschallenges.TheUnitedStatesandotherGroupofTwenty(G20)countriesareexposedtowaterstresstovarying

35（已运营和计划中）位于水资源压力高度的地区。Aqueduct204099战。美国和其他二十国集团（G20）国家不同程度地面临水资源压力。在水资源压力条WATERFORHYDROGEN

NorthernCoalchemicalplantsinnorthernChinacontributesignificantlytothecountry’scurrentaccountforover30%oftheprovince’soverallindustrialwaterwithdrawal.Mostofthesecoal-firedchemicalplantsarelocatedintheYellowRiverBasin,aregionwherewaterisextremelyscarce.Over70%oftheseplantsoperateinareasunderseverewaterstress,makingthemvulnerabletofluctuationsinwateravailabilityandchangingregulations.Continuousexpansionofthehydrogenindustryisprojectedtodriveupwaterdemandregion’swaterresourcesunderevenmorestress.Atransitiontoalternativetechnologiessuchasalkalineelectrolysisbecomescrucialtosustainablyaddressthesechallengessincethesetechnologiescanhelpmeetfuturedemandforhydrogen,whilereducingtechnologiesarethuspromisingsolutionstowater-relatedconcerns.GulfCooperationofferscopeforatransitiontogreenhydrogenproduction.However,waterscarcityisaproductionandemployonce-throughcoolingsystems,raisingbothenvironmentalandeconomicconcerns,includingthermalandbrinepollutionandhighenergycosts.ThepursuitofgreenhydrogeninEuropeispivotaltotheregion’sambitiousemissionofdroughts,whichimpactenergyproductionandexacerbatewaterstress.EventhoughEurope’shydrogenconsumptionisrelativelylowtoday,theregionhasarapidlygrowing2040,potentiallyincreasingthecompetitionforlocalwateruse.AsEuropeshiftsitshydrogenproductionmix,thewaterdemandisexpectedtoincreasesignificantlyby2040.Thiswillplacenewpressuresonwaterresourcesinwater-stressedregions.Toensureasustainableandenvironmentallyresponsiblehydrogenindustry,EuropemustintegratewaterconsiderationsintoitsenergyplanninganddevelopmenttechnologiessuchasPEM-basedelectrolysis.

3070的这些企业位于严2030在海湾阿拉伯国家合作委员会（GCC）GCC国家的一个重大问题，这些国家严重依赖海水淡化2040PEM电解等替代生产技术转型可以有20402314%2040PEM的水分EXECUTIVE

So,whatshouldwetowater-shortage-relatedrisks.Water-relatedimpactsandpotentialrisksneedtobecarefullyevaluatedinhydrogenwateruseregulationsmustbeestablishedforthesector,andenforced. shouldbeprioritisedinhydrogendevelopmentplans,particularlyinareaswherewaterisalreadyscarce.ofhydrogenproductionprojectsforpre-operationalevaluationpurposesandbemeteredandmonitoredduringoperation.efficiencyinenergyconversionandwaterconsumption.scaleelectrolysersandreducetheconsumptionoffreshwaterforcooling.incentivisedtousewater-efficientcoolingtechnologiessuchasaircooling.hydrogenproductionandcoolingprocessesshouldbeincentivised,evenasregulationsforthermalpollutionandbrinemanagementareenforced.

WATERFORHYDROGEN

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATER

第一章：Chapter1:Introductiontothehydrogen-waternexus

第一章：氢‑In2015,partiestotheParisAgreementconcurredthaturgentactiontodecarbonisetheirof1.5°C”,whichcalledforpolicymakerstointensifyandaccelerateeffortstomitigatecrisis(IPCC,2018).Accordingtothereport,thereisanarrowwindowofopportunitytoenactmeaningfulmeasurestopreventfurthertemperatureincreaseandaddresstheclimatecrisis.PolicymakersmustthereforestrengtheneffortstoreduceGHGemissionsfromalleconomicactivitiesasmuchaspossible.Solutionsthatreduceonlyasmallportionofemissionsareinadequate;itisnowcriticaltoprioritiseoptionsthatcanprovidesignificantemissionfrombothatechnicalandeconomicperspective,andcorrespondingsolutionsarelimitedinnumber.Thesesectors,knownas“hard-to-abate”sectors,includesteelmaking,basicchemicalproduction,long-haulaviation,shippingandtrucktransport.

201520181.5（GHG）排放，限制全球气温上升并应对气候危机（IPCC，2018）。 WATERFORHYDROGEN

ofhydrogenwereproducedfromfossilfuelsin2022–forrefineries,theproductionofbasicchemicalsandafewotheruses(IEA,2023).Hydrogencanbeusedasafeedstock-toproducesteel,ammonia,methanol,fertilisersandsyntheticfuel,andtopowervehicles-orstored,fortimeswhenrenewablesareataofhydrogenwillbeproducedby2050(IRENA,2023a).Ofcourse,thisproductionmustcomethroughclimate-awarepathways.Thegoodnewsisthatthesepathwaysdoexist.HydrogencolourItiscommon(evenifthepracticeisdisputed)tousecolourcodingtorepresentthehydrogenproducedviadifferentpathways.Thisreportwillfollowthesamepractice.Forthoseunawareofthecolours’meaning,hereisabriefvocabulary:BrownhydrogenisproducedviacoalGreyhydrogenisproducedfrommethaneviasteammethanereforming Bluehydrogenproductionfollowsthebrownandgreyhydrogenpathways,butcouplingwithcarboncapture,utilisationandstorage(CCUS)limitsGHGemissions.captureratesandthecompletepreventionofmethaneleakagearecritical.BrownorgreyhydrogenproductionreleasessubstantialGHGemissions,renderingthesetechnologiesunsuitableonanet-zeroemissionspathway.Otherpathways,andotherelectrolysis(e.g.chemicalloopingcyclesorphotochemicalandphoto-electrochemicalroutes)havenotyetreachedcommercialmaturity,andarethusnotforeseentoplayasignificantroleinthenearfuture(andarenotincludedinthisreport).

进入氢，宇宙中最丰富的化学物质。202295（Mt）的氢是通过（IEA，2023）。（IRENA）1.5°C2050523（IRENA，2023a）。当然，这种生产必须通过气候感知途径进行。好消息是，这些途径确实存在。棕色氢气灰色氢气是通过蒸汽甲烷重整（SMR） CCUS）相结合可以限制温室气体排放。此外，自热重整（ATR）正受到关注，CCUS1.5°C一致的路径上，高碳捕获率和绿色氢气水的重要维度同样关键。仔细评估和管理用水需要区分取水和消耗（词汇表中提供详细定义）CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATERThewaterTheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)underscorewater’scriticalroleinsustaininglifeandofwaterandsanitationforall.Thisgoalhighlightsresourceforlifebutalsoasanenablerofsocietalandeconomicdevelopment.Unfortunately,accesstocleanandsafewaterremainsanelusivequestformanycommunitiesaroundtheworld.Today,27%oftheworld’spopulationstilllackaccesstoanysafelymanageddrinkingwaterservices,and43%lackaccesstocleansanitation.Thechallengessurroundingaccesstowaterarenotjustaboutitsavailabilitybutaretightlyinterwovenwiththeaspectsofquality,reliabilityandaffordability.Thesechallenges,coupledwiththeimpactsofclimatechange,furtherexacerbatewaterscarcity,disruptingecosystemsandstraininglivelihoods,especiallyinmarginalisedandvulnerablecommunities.Theenergysectorreliesheavilyonwateracrossthesupplychain,fromfuelproductiontoelectricitythesectorseverelyacrosslocations,fromnuclearpowerplantsinFrancetocoal-firedpowerplantsinIndia.Disruptionsduetowatershortageshavebecomeincreasinglyfrequentasextremeweathereventsintensify.Atanationallevel,theenergysectoraccountsforasignificantshareofwaterwithdrawalsandconsumption.IntheUnitedStates,forinstance,thermalpowerplantsrequiringwaterforcoolingaccountedformorethan40%oftotalwaterwithdrawalsin2015.InChina,thepowersectoraccountsforover10%oftotalwaterwithdrawals,secondonlytoagriculture(EIA,2020;IRENAandChinaWaterRisk,2016).Thecompetitionforlimitedfreshwaterresourcesintensifiesasdemandforwatergrowsacrossend-usesectorsandclimateimpactsfurthercompoundsupplyconstraints.

第一章：

可持续发展目标（SDGs）强调了水在维持生命和促进发展中的关键作用。具体而言，SDG6这一目标突出了水不仅作为生命的重要资源，还作为社会和经济发展的推动者的基础性作用。27的人43的人口无法获得清洁的卫生设施。围绕水资源和消耗份额。例如在美国，20154010%，仅次于农业（EIA，2020IRENA2016）。WATERFORHYDROGEN

Thereisgrowingrecognitionoftheneedtoeffectivelyintegratewaterperspectivesintoenergysectorplanningtoaddresstrade-offsandmitigatephysicalclimateriskstothewatersectorthatcouldjeopardiseenergysecurity.Onemitigationsolutionistoreducethewaterdependencyofenergyproduction.ManycountrieshaveadoptedpowersectorGiventhefocusongreenhydrogenasasolutiontofacilitatetheenergytransitioninhard-to-abatesectorsandtheambitionofnationalandregionaltargetsandprogrammes,thewaterimplicationsofhydrogenproductionmustbeassessed.1Specifically,correlatingthelocationofannouncedprojectswithexistingwaterstress2indicatorscouldhighlightLocation-specificraisesthecapitalexpenditure(CAPEX)byupto50%,resultinginbluehydrogencostsofUSD1.5-3.0/kg.Bycontrast,greenhydrogencancostUSD4-6/kgandisgettingclosetocompetitiveonlyinregionswhereallfavourableconditionsareinplace.Forexample,inPatagonia,windenergycouldhaveacapacityfactorofalmost50%,withtheelectricitycostingUSD25-30/megawatthour(MWh).ThiswouldbesufficienttoachieveacostofaboutUSD2.5/kgforthegreenhydrogenproduced(IRENA,2020).Whilethewaterimplicationsofhydrogenconversion,transport,re-conversionandusageareworthyoffurther deterioratesfreshwaterresources’quantity(e.g.aquiferoverexploitationanddryrivers)andquality(e.g.eutrophication,organicmatterpollutionandsalineintrusion),posessignificantriskstohumanand

气候变暖已经限制了在热力和核电站中用于冷却的环境温度水的可用性，除了在许多电力系统中导致水电发电的波动性（彭博，202320192022）些可再生能源技术的转型，包括太阳能光伏（PV）和风能，这些技术比热力技术需要的水量少得多，将减少电力生产的水和碳强度（国际可再生能源署，2015）。例如，国际可再生能源署对中国和印度的国家自主贡献的分析发现，扩大可再生能203042%84%。在海湾合作委员会（GCC）地区，到203011517（国际可再生能源署，2019险，20162018）。和计划的目标，必须评估氢能生产的水影响。1具体而言，将已宣布项目的地点与现有的2指标相关联，可以突出运营阶段潜在的竞争，并为管理政策制定提供信息。CCS）结合生产蓝氢，将资本支出（CAPEX）提高高达5050%，电力成本为每兆瓦小时（MWh）25‑302.5美元（IRENA，2020）。CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATERdependsmainlyonfourfactors:initialinvestments;Thecapacityfactor–thelongeranelectrolyserisinuse,themorewidelytheCAPEXcomponentisdistributed.ToreducethecostoftheelectricitytofuelhydrogenproductionandmaximisecapacityMorocco,Oman,SaudiArabiaandSpain(Chapter3).Intheabsenceofadequatefreshwaterresources,plannedgreenhydrogenprojectsmayhavetorelyondesalinationforwater.TheprocessofdesalinisingseawaterwouldaddUSD0.02-0.05tothecostofakilogrammeofhydrogen(CalderaandBreyer,2017;Delpishehetal.,2021).

第一章：CAPEX组成部分，依赖于土地和电解槽的成本，以及所有初始投资；→资本加权平均成本；→→越长，CAPEX组成部分的分布越广泛。地区，例如澳大利亚、智利、毛里塔尼亚、摩洛哥、阿曼、沙特阿拉伯和西班牙（第三章）Delpisheh2021）。 WATERFORHYDROGEN

Importantly,greenhydrogencouldthenprovideanopportunitytotackleinsteadofaggravatethewaterstresschallenge.Watersupplysystemsdesignedspecificallyforhydrogenproductioncouldbemodified(extended)soastoalsomeetotherusers’waterwithminimaladditionalcostsforhydrogenproduction.Theextendedsystemscouldhelpreducewater-relatedexpensesiftheyachieveeconomiesofscale(IRENA,2022).However,thereisasignificantlackofcomprehensiveandreliabledataconcerningtheandofinadequatequality,giventherelativelysmallnumberofstudiesinvestigatingthisinitsearlystages.Furthermore,initialstudiesprimarilyfocusedonsmall-scalehydrogenproduction,inalaboratory,whichdidnotconsiderwateruseincrucialprocesseslikecooling,whichisessentialforcommercial-scaleproduction.Thewaterstressquestionisthusanimportantone,buthasnoanswersyet.Indeed,lackbyutilisingthesolarandwindresourcesofthenortherndesertareaofthestateofSouthandpermittingrisksrelatedtowatersupplyanddesalination(Peacock,2022).Announcementsofnewhydrogenplantsoftenprecededetailedwatersupplyanalyses,whichareoftenconductedduringthefeasibilitystudyphase.Developersmustidentifyfocusinsteadonmorepromisingprojects.

系统实现了规模经济（IRENA，2022），它们将有助于减少与水相关的费用。（GW）Moolawatana和风能资源，将氢气出口到韩国和日本。在可行性研究确定与供水和海水淡化相关的不可接受的环境和许可风险后，计划被搁置（Peacock，2022）。CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATERAboutthisthewaterrisksfacingmajorhydrogenproductionregions.Althoughwaterqualityisalsoanimportantaspect,thestudyfocusesonwaterquantityduringhydrogenproductionasthehydrogenvaluechain.SMR,ATRandcoalgasification.Foreachtechnology,thewaterfootprintisassessedforeachwater-relatedprocess,includingwaterpre-treatment,hydrogenproduction,coolingandhydrogenpurification,providingabreakdownofthewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsforeachoftheseprocesses.Chapter3estimatesthecurrentandfuturewaterdemandofglobalhydrogenproduction,byregion.Italsoassesseshowmuchofthatwaterdemandwillbemetinwater-stressedChapter4presentsdeep-diveanalysesofthreeregions–Europe,theGCCcountriesandnorthernChina–wherethehydrogenproductionpotentialishighandwater,scarce.planninganddevelopmentforpolicymakers.

第一章：(PEM]SMRATR和煤制气。对于每种技术，评估了与水相关的每个过程的水足迹，WATERFORHYDROGEN

CHAPTER2:AREVIEWOFWATERQUANTITYREQUIREMENTSINCOMMERCIAL-SCALEHYDROGEN

第二章：Chapter2:Areviewofwaterquantityrequirementsincommercial-scalehydrogenproduction

Thischapterprovidesadetailedreviewofthewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsforhydrogenproductiontechnologies.Toensureeffectivecaptureoftheserequirements,hydrogenproducersandwaterserviceprovidersfromtheindustrywerewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesforproductionatscaleareprovidedinatableandanalysed.Water-dependentprocessesingreen,greyandbrownhydrogenproductionareillustratedinschematicsandexplained.Allhydrogenproductiontechnologiesrequirewater.ItisusednotonlyduringproductionCCUSsystemsforabsorption/adsorption,separationandalsocooling.However,asmentionedearlier,dataonthewaterrequirementsofcleanhydrogenproductionareinsufficientaswellasofinadequatequality.Thisisbecausestudiesexamininghydrogenproductionanditswaterusearerelativelylimitedinnumber,consideringthenascentstageofresearchinthisfield.Further,initialstudiesinthisareafocusedprimarilyonsmall-scalehydrogenproduction,inalaboratory.Thedatareportedinthesestudiesdonotconsiderthewaterneededinprocessessuchascooling,whichiscriticalforcommercial-scaleproduction.Existingstudiesmaythusbeunderestimatingtheprojectedwaterdemandifglobalhydrogenproductionisscaleduptoalignwiththe

还用于冷却。在某些情况下，低温水（7°C）用于氢气纯化。此外，CCUS... WATERFORHYDROGEN

ofthewaterimplicationsofscalingupcommercialhydrogenproduction,andofthewaterconsumptionandwithdrawalintensitiesofvariousproductionprocesses.Toensureeffectivecaptureofallwaterrequirementsforcommercial-scalehydrogenproduction,hydrogenproducersandwaterserviceprovidersfromtheindustrywererequiredforcooling.Asignificantportionofthesourcedatapointsarebasedonindustrymodelsratherthanfrommetering,whichisnotyetacommonpracticeamonghydrogenThisreviewhasnotincludedsolidoxideelectrolysercells(SOEC)andanionexchangemembrane(AEM)electrolysissincethesetechnologiesarestillexperimental,withnocommercial-scaleprojectdataavailable.Forcoalgasification,thecoal-waterslurrygasificationtechnologyisconsideredsinceitaccountsforalmostallcoal-basedhydrogentoascoalgasification.WateruseinhydrogenFigure2.1illustrates–fortypicalgreen,grey,blueandbrownhydrogentechnologies–whereandhowmuchwateriswithdrawnanddischargedthroughouttheproductionprocess.Theactualquantitiesofwaterwithdrawnandconsumedaresitespecificandcouldvarybasedonfactorsincluding,forexample,thesourcewatertypeanditsquality,specifichydrogenproductiontechnology,theadoptionandtypeofcarboncapture,andcoolingtechnology.ThewaterrequirementspresentedinFigure2.2areestimatedbasedonthecommonlyusedproductionassumptionsrecommendedbytheindustryandmentionedinthefigure’snote.

本综述不包括固体氧化物电解槽（SOEC）和阴离子交换膜（AEM）电解，因为这些2.2EXECUTIVE

FIGURE2.1Schematicsofprocess-specificwaterwithdrawalandconsumptioninlitresfortypicalhydrogentechnologiestogenerate1kilogrammeofhydrogen

图2.1withdrawal（升）示BrownRiver:26.1LGroundwater:26.1Seawater:43.5

GreyRiver:22.9L

Coal-waterslurryCoal-waterslurry18.4 Ashwatersulfurremoval,andothersMakeup25.14.920.2Coal-waterslurry18.4 A