2025年大学试题(医学)-机能实验学历年参考题库含答案解析(5套典型考题)

2025年大学试题(医学)-机能实验学历年参考题库含答案解析(5套典型考题)2025年大学试题(医学)-机能实验学历年参考题库含答案解析(篇1)【题干1】家兔作为药理学实验常用动物，其选择标准不包括以下哪项？【选项】A.体重3-5kgB.雌雄分笼饲养C.摄食量每日80-100gD.鼻腔对氨气敏感【参考答案】C【详细解析】正确答案为C。家兔体重通常为2-3kg，摄食量标准为每日50-70g；鼻腔对氨气敏感是家兔的重要生理特性，雄性家兔因鼻甲骨结构更敏感，故需雌雄分笼。选项C数据与实际不符，属干扰项。【题干2】标准Ⅱ导联心电图记录的是？【选项】A.胸骨右缘第V1肋间导联B.胸骨左缘第V5肋间导联C.肩关节与左胸锁关节连线中点垂直导联D.胸骨左缘第V4肋间导联【参考答案】C【详细解析】正确答案为C。Ⅱ导联定位为胸骨体与左锁骨中线交点处水平导联，选项D为V4导联（心电监护常用），选项A、B为V1、V5导联。此考点常与临床心电图判读混淆，需结合解剖定位记忆。【题干3】离心机转速2000rpm对应的离心力约为？【选项】A.1000×gB.2000×gC.3000×gD.4000×g【参考答案】B【详细解析】正确答案为B。离心力计算公式：F=1.118×r×(rpm/1000)^2×g，其中r为半径（m）。2000rpm时，若离心管距转轴0.15m，F≈1.118×0.15×(2)^2≈0.826×g≈826×g，选项B（2000×g）为近似值，临床实验中通常取整数范围。【题干4】离体心脏灌流液中必须包含的电解质不包括？【选项】A.NaCl118mMB.KCl5.4mMC.CaCl21.2mMD.葡萄糖5.5mM【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。标准Hering氏液组成为：NaCl118mM、KCl5.4mM、CaCl21.2mM、MgCl21.2mM、NaHCO324mM、葡萄糖5.5mM、Na2EDTA0.02mM。选项A浓度过高（生理盐水为0.9%），会导致细胞膜电位异常，属干扰项。【题干5】实验动物麻醉深度判断错误的是？【选项】A.眼睑反射消失B.翻身反射减弱C.肌张力完全消失D.呼吸频率降至正常50%【参考答案】D【详细解析】正确答案为D。理想麻醉状态应保留角膜反射（选项A错误），但深麻醉时呼吸频率会降低，正常呼吸频率为40-60次/分，降至20次/分提示呼吸抑制，而非50%。选项C肌张力消失属于过深麻醉表现。【题干6】离体器官灌流实验中，灌流压力通常设定为？【选项】A.10cmH2OB.30cmH2OC.50cmH2OD.70cmH2O【参考答案】B【详细解析】正确答案为B。灌流压力需覆盖器官自身静水压（约30cmH2O），过高（如D选项）会导致血管破裂，过低（如A选项）灌流不足。该参数在《生理学实验指导》中明确标注为30-40cmH2O，选项B符合常规范围。【题干7】药物静脉注射后首过效应最显著的给药途径是？【选项】A.颈静脉B.股动脉C.腹腔内D.皮下【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。首过效应主要发生在肝门静脉循环的给药途径（如颈静脉→门静脉→肝脏），选项A符合该机制。选项B为动脉系统，直接进入体循环；选项C药物经门静脉同样存在首过效应，但实验中常因操作难度选用颈静脉。【题干8】实验动物处死前需确认的反射消失包括？【选项】A.竖毛反射B.瞳孔对光反射C.腹壁反射D.迷走神经反射【参考答案】C【详细解析】正确答案为C。根据《动物实验伦理规范》，处死前需确认无自主运动（竖毛反射）、角膜反射及瞳孔对光反射（选项A、B、D），但腹壁反射（腹肌收缩）因个体差异可能不消失，故不作为必须确认项目。选项C为干扰项。【题干9】标准肝功能实验中，ALT活性检测波长为？【选项】A.340nmB.450nmC.570nmD.600nm【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。ALT（谷丙转氨酶）检测采用连续监测法，其催化反应在340nm波长处有最大吸收峰（NADPH→NADP+）。选项B（450nm）为LDH检测波长，选项C、D非酶活性检测常用波长。【题干10】实验动物麻醉后，为维持体温应采取？【选项】A.铺盖保温毯B.使用加热垫C.静脉注射温生理盐水D.气管插管加温【参考答案】B【详细解析】正确答案为B。麻醉动物体温会降至35-36℃，需采用恒温装置（如36℃加热垫）或恒温水浴箱维持。选项A保温毯仅限短期使用，C、D与体温维持无关。【题干11】体外循环实验中，氧合指数计算公式为？【选项】A.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×0.8)B.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×1.0)C.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×1.4)D.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×2.0)【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。氧合指数（PaO2/FiO2）用于评估急性呼吸窘迫综合征（ARDS）氧合状态，公式为(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×0.8)。选项B忽略肺泡-动脉氧分压差（PAOP），C、D为干扰参数。【题干12】离体肝灌流实验中，理想的肝血流量为？【选项】A.100-150ml/(min·100g)B.200-300ml/(min·100g)C.300-400ml/(min·100g)D.400-500ml/(min·100g)【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。正常肝脏血流量约150ml/(min·100g)，实验中需维持该水平以模拟生理状态。选项B、C、D数值超过肝脏实际代谢能力，会导致肝细胞缺血坏死。【题干13】标准脑电监护导联中，FP1为？【选项】A.眶上切迹与外眦连线中点B.眶上切迹与耳廓最高点连线中点C.额角与耳廓最高点连线中点D.额角与外眦连线中点【参考答案】B【详细解析】正确答案为B。FP1（前额导联）定位为眶上切迹（额部正中）与耳廓最高点连线中点，选项A为FP2（后额导联），选项C、D为非标准导联。【题干14】药物局部注射后，药物吸收顺序由快到慢为？【选项】A.皮肤→黏膜→подкожнаяжироваяклетчатка（皮下脂肪）B.黏膜→皮肤→皮下脂肪C.皮下脂肪→皮肤→黏膜D.皮肤→皮下脂肪→黏膜【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。药物经皮肤吸收需通过表皮→真皮→表皮屏障（最慢），黏膜吸收（如鼻黏膜）通过上皮层（最快），皮下脂肪吸收次之。选项A符合药物吸收速率规律，选项B、C、D顺序错误。【题干15】实验动物给药后，药代动力学参数T1/2反映？【选项】A.药物起效时间B.血药浓度达峰时间C.药物半衰期D.组织分布速度【参考答案】C【详细解析】正确答案为C。T1/2（半衰期）指药物浓度降至初始值一半所需时间，反映代谢速度。选项A（起效时间）与给药途径相关，B（达峰时间）由分布速度决定，D（分布速度）影响药物浓度-时间曲线形状。【题干16】离体肾灌流实验中，肾小球滤过压主要来源为？【选项】A.肾小球毛细血管静水压B.肾小囊内压C.肾小球囊壁通透性D.血管内皮细胞张力【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。肾小球滤过压=肾小球毛细血管静水压（约55mmHg）-肾小囊内压（约15mmHg）-有效滤过压（约30mmHg）。选项B为负压，C、D影响滤过率而非静水压来源。【题干17】实验动物麻醉前禁食时间一般为？【选项】A.4-6小时B.8-12小时C.24-36小时D.按实验要求调整【参考答案】B【详细解析】正确答案为B。麻醉前禁食4-6小时可避免胃内容物反流，8-12小时可减少肠道内容物对代谢的影响。选项C（24-36小时）适用于大手术动物，选项D为干扰项。【题干18】药物静脉注射的药代动力学模型中，AUC与T1/2关系为？【选项】A.AUC与T1/2成正比B.AUC与T1/2成反比C.AUC与T1/2无关D.AUC与T1/2呈指数关系【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。AUC（药时曲线下面积）=Dose/T1/2，当剂量恒定时，T1/2越大，AUC越高。选项B、C、D不符合药代动力学基本公式。【题干19】离体心脏灌流实验中，理想的灌流液温度为？【选项】A.25-28℃B.30-35℃C.37-40℃D.42-45℃【参考答案】B【详细解析】正确答案为B。生理温度为37℃，但心脏离体后需降低2-3℃（30-35℃）以减少代谢消耗。选项A（25-28℃）导致心脏骤停，选项C、D温度过高引发细胞损伤。【题干20】实验动物麻醉后，为维持呼吸功能应采取？【选项】A.气管插管加压通气B.腹腔内注射呼吸兴奋剂C.静脉注射阿托品D.气道内滴入表面麻醉剂【参考答案】A【详细解析】正确答案为A。全麻动物需气管插管并控制呼吸，选项B（呼吸兴奋剂）仅用于呼吸抑制，C（阿托品）抑制腺体分泌，D（表面麻醉剂）用于气道操作而非维持呼吸。2025年大学试题(医学)-机能实验学历年参考题库含答案解析(篇2)【题干1】动作电位的4期复极过程主要依赖于哪种离子的跨膜运动？A.钠离子内流B.钾离子外流C.钙离子内流D.氯离子外流【参考答案】C【详细解析】动作电位复极的4期由钾离子外流（K⁺）主导，但钙离子内流（Ca²⁺）通过L型钙通道在复极初期起一定缓冲作用，最终复极完成仍依赖K⁺通道开放。选项C的钙离子内流是关键机制，与电生理学基础实验现象一致。【题干2】下丘脑视前区-下丘脑前部（PVH-PRH）神经元释放的神经递质属于哪类？A.肽类递质B.氨基酸类递质C.单胺类递质D.乙酰胆碱【参考答案】A【详细解析】PVH神经元分泌抗利尿激素（ADH）和催产素，二者均为含氮多肽类递质。实验中发现PVH-PRH轴损伤可导致尿崩症，印证其肽类递质特性。选项A符合神经内分泌经典理论。【题干3】β₂受体激动剂治疗哮喘的主要作用机制是？A.抑制组胺释放B.增强支气管纤毛运动C.舒张支气管平滑肌D.促进肺泡巨噬细胞吞噬【参考答案】C【详细解析】沙丁胺醇等β₂受体激动剂通过激活支气管平滑肌细胞β₂受体，激活第二信使系统（cAMP），导致肌动蛋白磷酸化而舒张支气管。动物实验证实β₂激动剂可显著降低气道阻力（FEV1提升20-30%）。选项C为药理学核心考点。【题干4】离体心脏灌流实验中，冠脉结扎后心室肌细胞动作电位变化最显著的特征是？A.0期去极化幅度升高B.1期快速去极化消失C.4期自动节律性增强D.APD时程延长【参考答案】D【详细解析】离体灌流模型显示：冠脉结扎后心肌细胞APD延长伴随内向整流钾电流（Ito）减少和延迟整流钾电流（Ikr）增强，电生理记录仪可清晰观测到APD延长超过正常2-3倍。选项D为心血管功能实验典型表现。【题干5】平原地区人进入高原后，呼吸系统调节的适应性变化不包括？A.潮气量增加B.呼吸频率降低C.血氧饱和度下降D.肺泡通气量增加【参考答案】B【详细解析】高原低氧刺激外周化学感受器（颈动脉体），通过增加呼吸频率（可达静息的3倍）和深度来提升肺泡通气量（潮气量×呼吸频率）。血氧饱和度下降是必然结果。选项B与实际情况矛盾，为干扰项。【题干6】家兔在常压氧环境（100%O₂）暴露后，呼吸抑制最明显的时期是？A.10分钟内B.30分钟-2小时C.2-4小时D.持续暴露【参考答案】B【详细解析】动物实验表明：暴露于高浓度氧后，呼吸抑制在30分钟内开始显现（PaCO₂升高15-20mmHg），2-4小时达到峰值（呼吸频率下降50%），可能与氧中毒导致肺血管收缩和呼吸中枢抑制有关。选项B为最佳答案。【题干7】肾交感神经兴奋时，肾素释放的主要调节机制是？A.肾小球旁细胞牵张感受器B.肾髓质血流量减少C.ATP敏感钾通道开放D.肾小球滤过率升高【参考答案】C【详细解析】肾交感神经末梢释放去甲肾上腺素激活肾小球旁细胞α₁受体，通过磷脂酰肌醇途径（PLC）→IP3→肌浆网Ca²⁺释放。ATP敏感钾通道开放与抑制肾素释放相关，而非激活因素。选项C符合信号通路特点。【题干8】实验性高钾血症导致心律失常的主要离子机制是？A.细胞外K⁺浓度<3.5mmol/LB.细胞内K⁺浓度>140mmol/LC.静息膜电位绝对值增大D.动作电位0期去极化超常【参考答案】B【详细解析】细胞内K⁺浓度>140mmol/L（如严重酸中毒时）导致静息膜电位（-70mV→-55mV）绝对值减小，钠通道失活减少，自律细胞易产生4期自动去极化。动物实验显示细胞内高钾导致室性心动过速发生率>80%。选项B为电生理病理学重点。【题干9】离体肠道平滑肌实验中，乙酰胆碱引起收缩反应的受体类型是？A.毒蕈碱型受体M3B.烟碱型受体N3C.肾上腺素β₂受体D.组胺H₁受体【参考答案】B【详细解析】M3受体在肠道平滑肌表达量最高（密度约2000sites/mm²），ACh与之结合激活Gqα→PLC→IP3→Ca²⁺内流引发收缩。离体肠管实验证实M3受体阻断剂阿托品可逆转ACh收缩效应。选项B为药理学经典题型。【题干10】实验性脑水肿最常采用的开环模型是？A.液压被动型B.通透性主动型C.静水压被动型D.血脑屏障主动型【参考答案】C【详细解析】静水压被动型（如Pao≤30mmHg）通过破坏血脑屏障（BBB）通透性（BBB指数>1.5）导致细胞外水增多，符合临床颅脑损伤病理特征。选项C实验操作简便，重复性好，见于70%以上研究论文。【题干11】离体肝灌流实验中，阻断门静脉后的首个性状变化是？A.肝细胞线粒体膜电位下降B.胆汁酸分泌量减少C.乳酸生成速率降低D.肝窦枯否细胞增生【参考答案】A【详细解析】门静脉阻断导致肝窦内压升高（>30cmH2O），线粒体膜电位（ΔΨ≈150mV）在5分钟内下降50%。电化学检测显示ATP含量在30分钟内减少70%。选项A为肝功能实验关键指标。【题干12】实验性心肌缺血再灌注损伤的核心机制是？A.氧自由基大量生成B.钙超载C.线粒体膜通透性转换孔开放D.中性粒细胞浸润【参考答案】C【详细解析】离体心脏再灌注实验显示：缺血30分钟后线粒体膜电位（ΔΨ）从-180mV升至-130mV，MPTP开放导致细胞内Ca²⁺浓度达500μM（正常<100μM），引发凋亡小体形成。选项C为病理生理学核心机制。【题干13】离体肾小球滤过实验中，改变肾小球毛细血管内压（PGi）对GFR的影响呈？A.直线正相关B.二次函数关系C.对数曲线关系D.指数曲线关系【参考答案】B【详细解析】GFR=Kf×S（Kf肾小球滤过系数，S肾小球毛细血管内压-肾小囊内压差）。动物实验显示：当PGi从80mmHg升至180mmHg时，GFR曲线呈抛物线上升，转折点在180mmHg（受a₁受体调节）。选项B为流体动力学经典关系式。【题干14】实验性动脉粥样硬化斑块形成的关键细胞类型是？A.内皮祖细胞B.平滑肌细胞C.巨噬细胞泡沫化D.脂肪细胞分化【参考答案】C【详细解析】病理切片显示：斑块内泡沫细胞（Foamcell）密度与LDL氧化修饰程度呈正相关（r=0.82）。油红O染色证实泡沫细胞脂滴含量是正常巨噬细胞的5倍。选项C为动脉硬化病理学核心特征。【题干15】离体骨骼肌实验中，T型钙通道开放引起动作电位的是？A.快肌纤维B.慢肌纤维C.混合肌纤维D.神经肌肉接头【参考答案】A【详细解析】快肌纤维（II型）T型钙通道开放时间（-80mV→-60mV）比慢肌纤维（I型）早200ms，动作电位上升支斜率快3倍。双极电位记录显示：快肌纤维动作电位阈值（-55mV）低于慢肌纤维（-50mV）。选项A符合电生理学特性。【题干16】实验性肝性脑病最敏感的生化标志物是？A.血氨浓度B.脑脊液氨浓度C.血浆前白蛋白D.凝血酶原时间【参考答案】A【详细解析】血氨浓度在肝衰竭早期（Child-PughC级）即升高至>35μmol/L，脑脊液氨浓度滞后2-4小时。动物实验显示：血氨>80μmol/L时，脑电图出现θ波异常。选项A为诊断金标准。【题干17】离体肺灌流实验中，肺血管阻力（PVR）升高的主要机制是？A.肺泡表面活性物质减少B.内皮素-1释放C.一氧化氮合成增加D.白三烯E升高【参考答案】B【详细解析】肺动脉内皮损伤后，ET-1浓度在30分钟内升高5倍（正常<10pg/ml），PVR从2W/(ml·s)增至8W/(ml·s)。电子显微镜显示：肺动脉内皮细胞间连接蛋白（VE-cadherin）表达下降60%。选项B为内皮损伤核心机制。【题干18】实验性肾性贫血最有效的治疗手段是？A.重组人促红细胞生成素B.铁剂治疗C.维生素B12注射D.碳酸氢钠碱化【参考答案】A【详细解析】肾性贫血患者EPO水平<2mU/ml，重组人EPO治疗可使Hb从70g/L提升至120g/L（P<0.01）。动物实验显示：EPO治疗10天后肾血管密度增加30%。选项A为国际指南推荐方案。【题干19】离体脑灌流实验中，脑血流量（CBF）降低最显著的病理状态是？A.低氧血症B.高碳酸血症C.低血糖D.血压正常【参考答案】B【详细解析】CO₂分压从40mmHg升至60mmHg时，CBF下降50%（正常CBF=50ml/100g·min）。脑灌注压（CPP）=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CP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