英语写作段落的扩展课件

ABasicCourseinWriting1

DevelopingParagraphsChapter42

Whatisaparagraphlike?Aparagraphisaunitofthought;itisatonceaunitinitselfandpartofalargerwhole,thatis,theessay;itislikeamini-essay&thereforeshouldbeunified,coherent,andwell-developed.

Aparagraphisunifiedwhenallthesentencesintheparagrapharefocusedononecentralthoughtoronasingletopic.Whenthewriterwishestointroduceanewthoughtortopic,heshouldbeginanewparagraph.

Aparagraphiscoherentwhenitdevelopsnaturally&smoothly,andonesentenceleadslogicallytoanother.3

LengthofParagraphsParagraphsvaryinlength.Experiencedwritersusuallytrytovarythelengthoftheirparagraphssoastoavoidmonotony.Thelengthofaparagraphdependsonitstopic,itsposition

intheessayanditsrole

inthedevelopmentofthethesisstatement.Alongparagraphexpressesacomplexideawhileashortonemakesamajortransition,anemphaticstatement,orasummary.4

Unity:concernedwithitscontent;allthesentencesinthepara.leadtoonecentralthemewhichisusu.summarizedinwhatiscalledthetopicsentence.Coherence:concernedwithitsformoritsorganization;allthesentencesshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder&thetransitionsshouldbesmoothandnatural.Transitions.QualitiesofEffectiveParagraphs5

WaysofProducingaFluentPara.Usingparallelstructures;Repeatingwordsorwordsgroups;Usingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentences;Beingconsistentinthepersonandnumberofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbs;Usingtransitionalexpressions6

FundamentalFeaturesof

anEffectiveParagraphacentralideasupportingevidencecloseconnectionbetweenthesentences7

Example1TopicSentence:

the1stsentence.

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Example2

Ireallyhadabaddayyesterday.WhenIwenttodosomewashing,Ifelloffonthewetfloorandbrokemyglasses.AfterIhurrieddownstairstotakemybikeonlytofindIhadleftmykeysonthebedroomonthe7thfloor….TopicSentence:

the1stsentence.

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Pollutionexistseverywhere.Peoplethrowawaymuchrubbisheveryday,andmuchofitismadeofplastic.Somefactoriessendoutheavysmokeintheair,andmuchwasteintorivers,andsomefactoriesproduceloudnoisewhichdrivepeoplemad.Example3TopicSentence:

the1stsentence.

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Onthesecondfloor,therearetwotoiletsandtwobalconies,andeachofthefourkidshastheirownseparateroomsonthisfloor.TheSmithsoftenenjoytheirmealsinabigsittingroomonthegroundfloor,andiftheweatherisfine,theymighteatinthegarden.Mr.Smithreallyhasabighouse.Example4TopicSentence:

thelastsentence.

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Sometimes,thetopicofapara.isnotstatedbutisimpliedinthecontent.Thewindpicksupandbeginstohurlitselfthroughthosedesertedstreets.Signboardsswayviolentlyfromsidetoside,seemingalmosttowanttogowiththewindthatblowsthem.Treescomplainasthestrongwindtearsattheirbranches,causingthemtobendandbowdown.Withthewindcomestherain,stinginganyoneunfortunateenoughnotyettohavereachedthesafetyofhome.Topic:

thesceneofaviolentstorm

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Readthefollowingparagraphandanswerquestionsafterit.Usingaspellcheckeronacomputercanbeagreatadvantageforawriter.First,thewritercancheckthespellingofmanyofthewordsinthepaper.Thespellcheckertriestomatchthespellingofthewordwithawordinitsdictionary.Manyspellcheckershaveatleast100,000wordsintheirdictionaries.Second,thewritercanaskthespellcheckertosuggestaspelling.Ifthewordisalreadyspelledcorrectly,thewritercanasktheprogramtoignorethesuggestedspelling.Ifthewordismisspelled,thewritercanrequestthattheprogramcorrecttheerror.Manywritersrelyonspellcheckerstoimprovetheaccuracyoftheirwriting.1.Whatisthetopicoftheparagraph?2.Underlinethetopicsentence.3.Identifythewordsorphrasesusedtoconnectthesentencesclosely.Topic:thespellchecker.TopicSentence:

the1stsentence.

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Readthefollowingparagraphandanswerquestionsafterit.Somepeopleseethingsonlyin"blackandwhite."Inthisexpression,blackandwhiterepresentoppositeextremes,withnomiddlegroundbetweenthem.Mostissuesintheworldarenotsosimpleasblackandwhite.Onesideofanissueisnotallwhite─rightorgood─andtheothersideisnotallblack─wrongorevil.Intherealworldtherearemanygrayareaswhereblackandwhitemixtorepresentthetruesituation.

[fromWordsandTheirStories,VOASpecialEnglish]Whatisthetopicoftheparagraph?Underlinethetopicsentence.Identifythewordsorphrasesusedtoconnectthesentencesclosely.

Topic:“blackandwhite”.TopicSentence:

the1stsentence.

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PlanningaParagraphFirst,thinkofthetopicorthemeormainidea,andexpressitinacompletesentence.Second,thinkofthedetailsorexamplesorfactsthatmaybeusedtosupportthemainidea.Workoutanoutlinetoputthesedetailsingoodorder.15

WaysofDevelopingaParagraph16

1.DevelopmentbyTimeinchronologicalsequence=inorderoftime按时间先后顺序

thingsarementionedaccordingtothetimewhentheyhappened,thefirstthingfirst&thelastthinglasttheeasiest&clearestwayintellingastoryorrecountinganevent17

historyoftherailroad

inthesixteenthcentury,bytheearlynineteenthcentury,in1825,thatsameyear,soon,duringthe1830s,bytheearly1840sthewriter’sfirstdayatanewschool

asImountedthestairstomynewclassroom;then;duringtherecess;soon;attheendoftheday18

Expressionsfor

DescribingChronologicalRelationsnow,nowadays,when,before,after,while,duringbetween___and___,in___(year),since___later,earlier,formerlyattheturnofthecentury(decade)inthefirsthalfofthecenturyinthe1990s,etc.atbirth,inchildhood,ininfancy,inadolescence,asanadult,inadulthood,inoldage,atdeathsimultaneously,simultaneouswith,atthesametimeas,theformer,thelatter,previous,previously,priortofirst,second,etc.;inthefirstplace,inthesecondplace,etc.tobeginwith,next,then,subsequently,inthenextplaceinconclusion,finally,lastly,intheend19

2.DevelopmentbyProcessexplainhowsth.isdoneaccordingtoitsrightsequencesoastoavoidmistakesorfailuresusu.followachronologicalorderandgiveastep-by-stepdescriptionimperativesentences&sentenceswiththeindefinitepron.youasthesubjectareoftenusedingivinginstructionsusepresenttenseiftheinstructionsarestillapplicable20

[Analysis]

Theparagraphdescribesstepbystepwhatthingsshouldbedonebeforemovinghouseandthepresenttenseisused.However,onethingneedstobenoticedinthisparagraph:thoughmanythingsshouldbedonebeforemovinghouse,thereseemstobenofixorderinwhichonethingshouldbedonebeforeanotheraslongastheyarealldone.Thisisanotherwaytodevelopaparagraphbyprocess.

Thereareonlytwotransitionalwordsinthisparagraph:Beforethemencometomovethefurniture,···Andlastly,···

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1.Firstly,youshould...getregularexercise...

2.Justbeforetheexam,ithelpstowriteshortnotes...

3.Onthedayoftheexam,don'tdoanystudying...Canyoufindoutthosewordsandphrasesthatindicatethetimesequenceintheparagraph?22

Expressionsfor

WritingProcessDescriptionsoccur,before,atthispoint,become,until,atthesametime,happen,while,after,grow,as,first,…secondly,…lastly…takeplace,once,next,becarriedout,then,

changeinto,assoonas23

3.DevelopmentbySpace

First,chooseavantagepoint

(有利位置),fromwhichthingsareviewed.Second,stateclearlythespatialrelations

(空间关系)amongtheobjectsbeingdescribed.Third,concentrateonthebest-knownfeaturesoftheplace&ignorestheminorones.Lastly,describetheplaceinpresenttense.24

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[Analysis]

Thisparagraphisadescriptionoftheolduniversitytown,Oxford.Inthisparagraph,theauthorobviouslystandsatthecenterofOxfordanddescribeswhatsurroundshim.26

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[Analysis]

Theparagraphgivesyouaclearandorderlypictureofaprettypark.Wheredoyouthinktheauthorstands?Hemustbebyonesideofthepark,forthatiswherehestartshisdescription.Themostimportantfeatureoftheparkisthepitches,andotherfeaturesarethetrees,theriver,theflowersandothersportsfacilities.Thepresenttenseisusedinthedescription.

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Expressionsfor

DescribingSpatialRelationshipswhere,inwhich,towhich,fromwhich,etc.

under,over,inside,beside,ontopof,etc.

along,through,asfaras,etc.

north,northern,south,southern,etc.

totheleft,totheright,tothenorth,etc.

attheback,infront,inthemiddle,etc.

adjacenttoparallelrectanglecorrespondingtoparalleltosemicircledistanceperpendiculartoslopemidpointplanespaceinterioroppositesurfacediagonaloverlappingverticaledgepyramidhorizontallimitexteriorintersection29

4.DevelopmentbyExampleoftenusedinexplainingthingsmakewritingvivid,convincing&memorablemakedry,abstractideasortheoriesinteresting,concrete&easytounderstand30

[Analysis]

Thefirsttwosentencesofthisparagraphseemtopresentarathermysterioustheory.Butwhenyoureadtheexample,youfinditreallyinterestingandmayevenstarttobelievethatthereissometruthinit.Exampleshelptoexplainwhatyouwanttosayorprove.Theymakedryandabstracttheorieseasytounderstand.Sowhenyouwriteanexplanatoryparagraph,youshouldalwaysthinkofgoodexamplestoillustrateyourviewsandpoints.Usingthephrase"Forexample"isaconvenientwaytostart.31

[Analysis]Inthisparagraph,theauthordevelopsthecontrollingsentencewithaseriesoffactsinvolvingwell-knownpeople.Theseenablethewritertomakeabstractkeyidea“persistentinvestigation”concrete.Theyalsoadddramaticqualitiesthatmaketheinformationinteresting.Wemaynoticethatitisnotalwaysnecessarytosay“forexample”or“forinstance”whenanexampleisgiven.32

Expressionsfor

GivingSpecificDetails33

5.Developmentby

Comparison&ContrastThemethodofcomparisontendstofocusonthesimilaritiesofthetwoobjectsbeingcomparedwhilethemethodofcontrastemphasizesthedifferencesbetweenthetwoobjectsbeingcontrasted.Therearetwomajorwaysoforganizingparagraphsofcomparisonorcontrast.Onewayistoexamineonethingthoroughlyandthenexaminetheother.Inthisway,theaspectsexaminedinthetwothingsshouldbeidenticalandinthesameorder.Thismethodiscalledblockcomparison/contrast.Theotherwayistoexaminetwothingsatthesametime,discussingthempointbypoint.Thismethodiscalledalternatingcomparison/contrast.34

[Analysis]

Asyoureadtheparagraph,youfindthattheauthorfirstmentionsthedisadvantagesoflivinginabigcity.Fourmajorproblemsarelistedtoillustratethestressurbanpeoplehavetolivewithdaily.Thenhebeginstostatetheadvantagesoflifeinacountryvillagebyusingthewords"Incontrast."Fourniceaspectsofcountrylifearementioned,givingyouabeautifulpictureofthecountryside.Bycontrast,youcanimmediatelyseethegreatdifferencesbetweencitylifeandcountrylife.Andblockcontrastisadoptedhere.

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Expressionsfor

MakingComparisonandContrastToCompare:

similarto,atthesamerateas,similarly,as,like,alike,justas,likewise,inlikemanner,correspondto,inthesameway,correspondingly,tohave______incommon,resemble,commoncharacteristics,etc.,resemblance,tobeparallelin______,almostthesameas,bothToContrast:differfrom,unlike,however,incontrastto,still,inoppositionto,nevertheless,onthecontrary,otherwise,ontheoppositeside,evenso,ontheotherhand,lessthan,differentfrom,morethan,although,fasterthan,etc.,while37

6.Developmentby

Cause&EffectInourdailyconversation,questionswithwhyareoftenaskedandanswered.Thisiscalledcausalanalysis(因果分析).Therearetwobasicwaysoforganizingaparagraphdevelopedbycauseandeffect:stateaneffectanddevotetherestoftheparagraphtoexaminingthecauses;stateacauseandthenmentiontheeffects.38

[Analysis]

Inthisparagraph,theopeningsentencepointsoutwhattherecordcompanieshavebeendoingrecently,andtherestoftheparagraphtellsushowthisaffectstheclassicalmusicindustryinanegativeway.Obviouslythefirstsentencestatesthecauseandthentherestoftheparagraphstatestheeffect.Intheparagraph,thoughwordslike"why"or"reason"arenotused,thecause-effectrelationshipisclearlyimpliedinthecontent.39

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Expressionsfor

DiscussingCauseandEffectso,consequently,asaresult,thus,therefore,theresultof,accordingly,becauseof,resultin,forthisreason,owingto,theeffectof,since,theconsequenceof,hence,dueto,haveaneffecton,because,

thereasonfor,

thecauseof,

Itfollowsthatas,nowthat,sothat,seeingthat,thanksto,forfearthat,

outof,such____that,owe_____to,soas____to,classifications,make____possible,

makeitpossible/impossiblefor_____todo41

7.DevelopmentbyClassificationToclassifyistosortthingsintocategoriesaccordingtotheircharacteristics.Weclassifymanythings.Ifweclassifyapples,forinstance,wemayclassifythemaccordingtosizeintolargeonesandsmallones;accordingtocolorintoredonesandgreenones;accordingtopriceintoexpensiveonesandcheapones;accordingtolocalityofgrowthintoimportedanddomesticallyproduced.42

Whenyoufaceanumberofideas,peopleorobjects,youmayclassifythemintogroupsaccordingtotheirsimilaritiesordifferences.Bysodoing,yougivethereaderaclearandin-depthviewofthemandsometimes,afeelingoforder.Clearclassificationoftenhelpsthereadertoseethedifferentvaluesofpeopleorideas.Themostimportantthingforagoodclassificationistohaveaclearandproperprincipleofclassification.43

Parallelismofcategoryisessentialtoagoodclassification.Ifweclassifytypesofsports,wemayspeakoftrackandfieldevents,swimming,ballgames,etc.Ifweclassifysportsintojumping,ballgames,running,floorexercise(自由体操)andbackstroke(仰泳),wewould