《德伯家的苔丝》中生态女性主义研究

Chapter1.IntroductionThestoryofTessoftheD’UrbervillesprimarilyrevolvesaroundTess,ayoungwomanbornintoanimpoverishedruralfamily,whosefatheraccidentallydiscoverstheirlineageasdescendantsofthedeclinedaristocraticd'Urbervillefamily.Inordertoimprovethefamily’ssituation,herparentsforceTesstotakeabride,butTessisseducedandrapedbytheprodigalson,Alecd’Urberville.Afterthat,Tessendeavorstorebuildherlifeandfallsinlovewiththevicar’sson,AngelClare,whoisabandonedbyhimagainontheirweddingnightafterconfessinghispast.However,afterconfessingherpastonherweddingnight,TessisonceagainabandonedbyAngelClare.Aftermuchsuffering,TessisforcedtoreturntoAlecd’Urbervilleinordertosurvive,andultimatelykillshimindespair,andanabsurdlawultimatelyexecutesTess.ThomasHardywasborninruralDorset,England,andstudiedarchitectureinhisearlyyearsbeforeturningtoliterature.Hisworksaremostlybasedonthecountrysideofsouth-westEngland,blendingrealismandnaturalism.Hardy’sworksareoftenpessimistic,criticizingtheencroachmentofindustrialcivilizationonthetraditionalcountryside,exposingsocialhypocrisyandmoralprejudice,andfocusingparticularlyontheplightofwomeninapatriarchalsociety.Ecofeminismapproachesecologicalissuesfromagenderperspective:“Capitalistpatriarchycommodifieswomen,animalsandecosystems,andthedevaluationof‘nature’and‘femininity’contributestoenvironmentaldestructionandgenderoppression”(Gaard2-5).Ecofeministtheoristsconsidertheinterconnectednessbetweensexism,controlofnature,andvariousothersocialinequalities.“Suchananti-dualistecofeminismmustbeunderstoodasatheorythatsynthesizesotherliberationstruggles”(Val40).Ecofeministsbelievethatwomenareclosertonature,thatahealthyandbalancedecosystem,bothhumanandnon-human,shouldbekeptinastateofdiversity,andthatthesurvivalofspecieshasbroughttolighttheneedforarenewedunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenhumansandnature.Feministprincipleswouldchangethepatriarchalfoundationsofmalignantdevelopment.Whatitadvocatesisdevelopmentlinkedtoproduction.TessoftheD’Urbervillesrevealshowpatriarchyplaceswomeninasubordinatepositionalongsidenaturethroughmoraldiscipline,economicoppressionandnaturalexploitation.“Patriarchalsocietiesrestrictwomenwithstrictstereotypicalgenderroles,limitingwomentoanegativestateandkeepingmeninapositivestate”(Rosemary71).Hardy’scleveruseofthedepictionoftheseasonshighlightsTess’schangingfortunes,fromherengagementinthespring,toherhappinessinthesummer,toherabandonmentintheautumn,andultimatelyherdeathinthewinter.Tess’sstrongconnectiontonature,oppressioninapatriarchalsociety,dependenceandclosenesstonature,andthesolaceofthespiritinnature,andthedestructionofnaturebyindustrialization,correspondtowhathappenstowomen.

Chapter2.Tessandnature:asymbolofecofeminism2.1Tess’sstrongconnectiontonatureEcofeministtheorysuggeststhatwomenandnatureareinfluencedbypatriarchyandthatthereisastrongconnectionbetweenthetwo,whichisexemplifiedbyTess’stragedy.Tess’srelationshipwithnatureisthemainbasisforhighlightingTess’scharacter,andisalsoanimportantvehicleusedbyHardytorevealsocialconflictandhumantragedy.2.1.1Tess’saffinityanddependenceonnatureTess’sclosenesstoanddependenceonnaturesuggestthatherdestinyistiedtonature.Tess’sbirthplace,theValeofBree,isapureplace,withfertilelandandclear,uninterruptedsprings.Tess’simageblendswithnature,withredlipslikeroses,hairthecolourofearth,andalight,bird-likegait.HardyportraysTessas“nature’sdaughter”throughthedepictionofnature,whichsetsoffthepurityofTess,andcorrespondstotraditionalagriculturebeforethearrivalofindustrialcivilisation,revealingthatthedevelopmentofindustrialcivilisationhasacceleratedthedestructionofnature.Tess’sbodyexistsincloseconnectionwiththeland,theseasons,thefloraandfauna,andnatureisahighermoralcodethattranscendssocialnorms.Tess’sbarefeetonthedirtandblowingdandelionswithhermouthshowherinnocentnatureofbeingonewithnature.“Heronlythoughtwastogetawayfrommankind,orratherfromthecoldcollectivecalledtheworld”(Thomas78).NaturallaborhelpsTesstohealhertrauma.AtTalbotseerFarm,Tessmilksthecowsandtendstotheanimals.ThisclosecontactwithnatureallowsTesstograduallycomeoutoftheshadowofherviolationbyAlec.NatureisinclusiveofTess,andwhilesocietyandAngelspurnTessforherlossofvirginity,naturealwaysacceptsher,asshelaborsamongstthefields,andallofnaturetreatsherthesame.WhenthevicarrefusestoholdafuneralforTess’sprematurelydeceasedchild,Tesschoosestocompletethechild'sfuneralinnature,revealingthehypocrisyofreligionandherclosenesstoandrelianceonnature.Tessisveryfamiliarwithagriculturalrhythms,andduringthespringsowing,Tesscancalculatethegerminationrateoftheseedsthroughnaturalrhythms.Atatimewhenindustrywasnotyetdeveloped,traditionalagriculturerequiredwomentomastersurvivalskillsthatwerecloselyrelatedtonature.Withtheintroductionofindustrializedmachines,traditionalagriculturalproductionwasdestroyed,andwomen’ssurvivalskillswerereplaced.TessworksatFlinkumAshFarm,amechanizedscenewithindustrializedmachinesroaring,wheatgrainsspewingoutofthemouthsofthemachineslikeblood,andasshebendsdowntogleantheears,thescratchesofwheatawnsonthebackofherneckcorrespondtothesweatstainsintheshapeofcrosses.HardyblendsTess’ssilhouettewiththeinhospitableland,anddespitetheharshnessoftheenvironment,shefightsagainstdestinywithresilienceagainstfate.2.1.2NatureasTess’sspiritualcomfortNatureisnotonlythedependenceofTess’ssurvival,butalsothesupportofherspiritualworld.Hardy,throughrepeateddepictionsofnaturalimagery,establishesaconnectionbetweenTess’spsychologicalchangesandthenaturalecology,revealinghowsheseekssolaceinnatureandhealsherwounds,andatthesametimehintingatthedoublealienationofindustrialcivilizationonhumanbeingsandnature.Hardydepictsthelightwindasjoyfullaughter,andeverybirdsonghidesjoy.Naturebecomesarefugeforhertoescapefromsocialdiscipline,andeverytimeTessishurt,shewillescapetowardsnature.Afterlosinghervirginityandherson,Tesschoosestoreturntonaturetowork,andhealshermentaltraumabyinteractingwithnaturethroughphysicallabor,andtheValleyoftheFlumebecomesarefugeforhertoescapefromthemoraloppressionofsocietyforthetimebeing.Whileworkingonthefarm,shetemporarilyforgetsthehumiliationofrealitybyobservingthestarrysky.Hardysublimatesphysicalpainintospiritualawakening.ThestingingofthenettlescontrastswithAare’sviolence,andthecoolnessofthedewandtheburningpainofthenettlesformaparadoxicalhealing,suggestingthatnaturecansoothethetrauma,andgivingTessthecouragetofightback.AfterAareviolatesTess,sherunsthroughthenettlebushes,stainedwithdewonherbarefeet,andthesharpstingingpainallowshertofeeltheexistenceoflife.AftertheuntimelydeathofTess’sillegitimateson,sheweavesawreathofwildflowerstocovertheunmarkedgraveofherillegitimateson,andthedecompositionofthebodybynaturallydecayingorganismsexemplifiesTess’suseofthelawsofnaturetofightagainstthemoraldamnationoftheChurch.AmongthefieldsoftheBlackmoreVale,herbreathingissynchronisedwiththeebbandflowoftheland,andhersweatseepsintothesoil,completingtheexchangeofenergybetweenthepsycheandnature.Hardyexposesthedoubledestructionofnatureandpeople’sspiritualsolacebycapitalismthroughthenegativeportrayalofindustrialcivilisation.AsthesteamthreshingmachinespewsblacksmokeintothefieldsandTessgazesatthestrawcrushingbetweenthegears,mechanicaltimeforciblyseversherspiritualcontractwithnature.WhenTessoperatesthethreshingmachine,thesceneofthemachinedevouringtheearsofwheatrevealsthealienationofindustrialcivilisationfromnaturallabour;therailwaydestroysthefields,symbolisingthepursuitofcapitalandthemoralyokeonTess,whichharmsherphysicallyandmentally.ThedisintegrationofthenaturalecologyissynchronisedwiththecollapseofTess’sspirit,suggestingthedemiseofthetraditionalagrariansocietyintherapiddevelopmentofindustrialcivilisation.AccordingtoHardy,“theredemptionofthespiritualpositiveisnotinthechurch,butintherootsofeveryweedthatpenetratesthecracksintheconcrete,notinthegallowsofmoraljudgement,butintheresilienceofnatureandwomenwhoseekrebirthtogether”.2.2Tess’sinnocenceandunspoiltnatureInTessoftheD’Urbervilles,thereisadeepsymbolicconnectionbetweenTess’sinnocenceandnature.ByportrayingTessasa“nature’sdaughter”,Hardyendowsherwithakindofinnocencethatisinharmonywiththenaturalecology,whichgraduallydisintegratesundertheinvasionofindustrialcivilisationandtheoppressionofsociety'smorality,andbecomesthecentralmetaphorofthetragedy.NatureservesasthemirrorimageofTess’sinnocence,whichdoesnotoriginatefrommoralindoctrinationbutratherfromtheprimitivevitalitygivenbynature,whichismirroredbytheuncontaminatedcountryside.ThevillageofMarlott,whereTessgrowsup,issituatedinthevalleyoftheBure,whichHardydepictsas“thelastpurelanduninvadedbytherailwaysandthemachines”.Thescenesofherwalkingbarefootinthegrassandmilkingthecowsinthemorningdewimplythathersoulisasuntaintedbytheworldasnatureis.ThedepictionofTess’sappearancenotonlyemphasisesherbeauty,butalsoimpliesthatherbodyisapartofnature,andthatTess’sinnocenceisasnaturalasanunpickedwildflower.Tess’sinnocenceisembodiedinheradherencetothelawsofnature.Whenworldlymoralityaccusesherof“losinghervirginity”,sheacceptsthechangesinherbodywithopenness,Tessusesmosstostopthebleedingwhensheismenstruating,shetreatsphysiologicalphenomenaasapartoftheland’sbreath,andadoptsasimplewayofdealingwiththeminsteadofusing“unclean”methodsthatneedtobecoveredup.Thetreatmentofphysiologicalphenomena,theuseofoakleavestoabsorbmilkwhenitoozesout,andthecross-speciesresonancewiththephysiologicalprocessofmilkproductionbythecow,whichdissolvesthemorallabelof“chastity”,allreflectthenaturalethicsandinnocenceofTess.WhenArreyseducesTessintheforest,strawberriesandroseswiththornsaredepictedinthebackground.Strawberriessymbolisetemptationandfleetingsweetness,whilethethornsoftherosessignifythepainofinnocencebeingviolentlyplundered,andnaturebecomesawitnesstotheviolationofinnocence.Attheendofthenovel,thesceneofTess’sarrestatStonehengeisdepictedasthelastinnocencebeingslashedbythebladeofcivilisation,andthedesolationofnatureandherdeathtogetherannouncetheendoftheageofprimitiveinnocence.“Theexploitationofnaturebymanandtheconsequentdamagetothenaturalecologydidnotbeginincapitalistsociety,buthasbeengoingonsincemankindbecameindependentlyconsciousandmasteredthemanufactureoftoolsandtheuseoffire”(Lu107).Tess’sinnocenceisoftenreflectedincruelnaturalphenomena;shestrangleshares,doesnotresorttoshootingforfearofdisturbingthedeer,doesnotharvestunripesheavesofwheatatharvesttime,andhelpsfieldmiceoverthewinter.ThesebehavioursreflectTess’squestforbalanceintheecosystem.Tess’slacedressisburiedinadungheapandonlytakenoutafterthreemonths.Thesilkthreadsarebrokendownbymicroorganismsintoplantfibres,andthisprocessoffabrictransformationisinfactnature’ssacredpurificationofman-madeartefacts,reflectingthepurityofnature.Trueinnocenceisnotfoundinpriestlybooks,butineveryecosystemuncontaminatedbypesticides,notinthemorbidmoralabductionofmen,butintheresilienceofwomenwhoseekrebirthwiththeland.

Chapter3.Doubleoppressionunderpatriarchy3.1TheoppressionofTessinapatriarchalsocietyThomasHardy,inTessoftheD’Urbervilles,exemplifiesTess’spatriarchalsocietythroughtheportrayalofthebehaviourofYareD’UrbervillesandAngelClay,thedirectimpositionofmaleviolence,whichisnotonlyphysical,butalsothesystematicoppressionoflanguage,moralityandinstitutions,whichultimatelypushesTesstoherdeath.3.1.1ThedirectimpositionofmaleviolenceYare’sviolenceagainstTessbeginswithhiselaboratetrap.HetakesadvantageofTess’sfamily’spovertyandlureshertoachickenfarmunderthepretenceofofferingherajob,lowersTess’sguardthroughmaterialgifts,andfinallyviolatesTesswhenshefallsasleepfromexhaustionintheforest,resultinginTess’slossofvirginityandpregnancy.Yare’ssexualassaultagainstTessoccursintheoakforestoftheTranlingtonHuntingEstateinafoggysettingthatresemblesthesceneofanobleman’sroundup.Yareisdressedinscarlethuntingclothes,holdingabrokenhazelbranch,Tessislostandmistakenlyentersthewoods,likeadoerunningintotheencirclement,thenaturaldepictionoftheaftermathofthesexualassaultisfullofironictension,thisactisnotonlytheplunderofTess’sbody,butalsothestartingpointofthetragedyofherlife.WhenTess’sfamilyisdisplacedbythedeathofherfather,YarereappearstoforceTesstobecomeamistressinthenameoffinancialassistance.HetakesadvantageofTess’ssenseofresponsibilitytowardsherfamilytoplaceherinadilemmaofmoralityandsurvival,andthiskindofcoercionbymeansofmaterialgoodsisessentiallytheexploitationofavulnerablewomanbythepowerofaman.Yare’ssexualassaultisneverpursued,whileTess’skillingofherabuserisswiftlymetedoutbyhanging,revealingthatthelawisatoolofpatriarchytoinflictviolence.Clay,ostensiblyagainstclassprejudice,isdeeplyboundbytraditionalethics.Clay'sconstantcorrectionofTess’sdialect,thoughstandardEnglishatthetime,cutsTess’sbloodtiestotheland,justasthesteamenginereplacesthetraditionalagriculturalmethodsoflabour.Ontheirweddingnight,heconfessesthathehashadsexualrelationswitholderwomen,butcannotacceptTess’spastasaseducer.ClayjudgesTessonthegroundsof“uncleanness”butcaresnothingforhisownpremaritalsexualexperiences.Thisdoublepersonality,whichembodieshumanhypocrisy,isthesamedoublestandardastheChurch’srefusaltobaptiseTess’sillegitimatechildwhileacquiescingtothesinsofArrey.Thedoublestandardisthesame.ClaychoosestofleewhenhelearnsofTess’sordeal,travellingtoBrazilandbreakingoffcontactwithher.EvenwhenTesswritesmanylettersbeggingforhelp,hechoosestoavoidit,resultinginTess’sisolationanddesperation,acoldviolencethatismoredestructivethanphysicalharm,andwhichcausesTesstoloseherfaithinloveandsalvationcompletely.3.1.2TheimplicitoppressionofsocialinstitutionsThenovel’sdepictionofTess’stragedyrevealsthelatentoppressionintheVictoriansocialsystem,whichisnotovertlyviolent,butquietlypusheswomenandtheunderclasstoextinctionthroughacombinationofeconomicrules,religiousmorality,thelegalsystemandclassorder.TheplunderingofTess’sfamily,whoareevictedfromtheirhouseandhaveeventhe“d’Urberville”inscriptionremovedfromtheirtombstone,signalsthetotaldominationofcapitalismovertraditionalagrariansociety.“Capitalism'sexploitationofnatureandofwomen'sunpaidlabourisattherootofsystemicinequality”(Salleh40).Tessisreducedtoanitinerantlabourer,thevalueofherlabouristurnedintoapiece-ratewage,whilethefarmerreapshighprofitsfromthesteamthresher.Tess’shandsarechappedandbleeding,butheremployercallsher“amedalofefficiency”.Capitalismalienateswomen’sreproductivefunctionintoa“productionmalfunction”,liketheunseededwheatintheclawsofapesticide-poisonedvole,andthesystembothcreatespovertyandblamesitonthe“moralfailings”oftheindividual.Thesystembothcreatespovertyandblamesitonthe“moraldefects”oftheindividual.Thepriest’srefusaltoallowtheburialofTess’sillegitimatesononthegroundsthatheis“unclean”,buthisacquiescencetoAare’ssexualviolence,wherebymalesinscanberepentedof,whilefemale“chastity”ispermanentlystigmatised,isamoraldoublestandardthatisinfactapatriarchaltamperingwiththereligioustext,whichalienates“purity”intoabsolutecontroloverthefemalebody.Thismoraldoublestandardisinfactapatriarchalmanipulationofreligioustexts,alienating“purity”intoabsolutecontroloverthefemalebody.Thecontrastbetweenthewhitewigofthejudgeandtheblackflagofthegallowsexposesthenatureofthelawasatoolofpatriarchalviolence,wherethejudicialsystembecomesanenablerofoppressivestructures.3.2Theexploitationofnatureunderpatriarchy Theobjectificationofnaturebyindustrialisationistheecologicalviolenceandalienationofhumannatureundermechanicallogic.Tess’stragedyisnotonlythesufferingofwomen,butalsothetragedyofnatureunderthecrushingofindustrialcivilisation.“Thescientificrevolutionhasreconfigurednaturefromanorganiclivingorganismtoadominatedmechanicalsystem”(Merchant168-169),atransformationthathasintensifiedthedoubleoppressionofnatureandwomen.Thistransformationhasintensifiedtheoppressionofbothnatureandwomen. 3.2.1ThereificationofnaturebyindustrializationThroughthetragedyofTess,Hardyrevealstheobjectificationoftherelationshipbetweenmanandnaturebyindustrialisation.ThemechanisationandurbanisationbroughtaboutbytheIndustrialRevolutiondestroyedthetraditionalidylliclifeintheEnglishcountryside.Tess’shometownwasoriginallyavalleywithbeautifulsurroundings,butwiththearrivalofmachinery,traditionalagriculturewasreplacedbymachines,andthefarmerswerereducedto“slaves”ofthemachines,andTesswasforcedtoengageinmanuallaboursuchaspotatosortingandcoalshovelling,andthenaturalenvironmentwasdegradedfromanidyllicplacetoacold“workplace”.Tessisforcedtoengageinmanuallaboursuchaspotatosortingandcoalshovelling,andthenaturalenvironmentisdegradedfromalife-nourishingidylltoacoldandunfeeling“workplace”.Hardy’sdepictionofwheatearsbeingcrushedbygears,wheatgrainsdepictedasbeadsofblood,wheathusksdepictedasboneshavings,machinesreplacingthenaturalrhythmsoftraditionalagriculture,andthelandturningintoastorehouseofrawmaterials.Thefarmer’syieldmeasuresthevalueoftheland,justasYareobjectifiesTessbythestandardofchastity,sharingthesamelogicofplunder.Whenthecowisslaughteredformastitis,Tesstouchesthecongealedscabsonherfurandrealisesherfateasa“toolofproduction”alongwiththeanimals.Nolongerabletojudgethetimeofdaybythepositionofthestarsorthechirpingofbirds,Tessisforcedtoacceptthemechanicalrhythmsofthefactorywhistles,andhermenstrualcycleisevensynchronisedwiththemovementofthepistonsofthesteamengine,alienatingherphysiologyandmakingheranappendageofindustrialtime.WhenTessisarrestedatStonehenge,theglacialabrasionsonthebasaltrockoverlapwiththestrangulationmarksonherneck,andbloodseepsintothecrevicesofthestoneandmineralisesintohematitewiththecalcifiedbloodofthesacrificedmaidenfrom3,000yearsago;thetimelessnessofgeologicaltimedissolvesthenarrownessofhumanmoraljudgement,declaringtheviolenceofindustrialcivilisationtobenomorethanaspeckofdustintheriverofnature.3.2.2ThelogicofanthropocentrismThelogicofanthropocentrismisthedoublecolonisationofnatureandwomen.ThroughthepowerstructureofVictoriansociety,Hardyrevealshowanthropocentrismimposesmultipleoppressionsonnatureandwomeninthenameofreason,moralityandprogress.TheimageryofthescarletjuicestainingTess’sfingersassheisforcedtofeedonwildstrawberriescontrastswiththebloodstainsonthebedsheets,suggestingthat“purity”isahypocriticalsignofmaledesire.Tess’sactofvengeanceinkillingArreyisnotonlyanactofresistanceagainstindividualviolence,butalsoanindictmentofstructuraloppression.However,sheisstillstrangledbythe“justice”representedbythelawintheend,whichhighlightsthesystemicviolenceofthepatriarchalsystem.TheVictorianconceptofchastityequatesthevalueofwomenwithphysical“purity”,withTessbeingreviledbysocietyforherlossofchastity,whileClaireisforgivenforherownsexualexperience.Thisdoublestandardisessentiallyamanifestationofthepatriarchalsociety’srationalisationofexploitationthroughthediscourseofmorality,andtheerasureoffemalesubjectivitybyanthropocentrism.Clay’sattemptstowinbackTessafterthebankruptcyoftheBrazilianfarmareinfactawayofviewingwomenasrecyclablemoralresources.Tess’schildisrefusedbaptismbecauseitwasbornoutofwedlock.Thepriestrefusesthebaby’sfuneralbecauseofthe“stigmaofillegitimacy”butacquiescestoAare’scrime.ThecourtsentencesTesstobehangedonthebasisoftheBible,butcondonessexualviolence.Religionandlawbecometoolstoupholdanthropocentrism,relegatingwomenandnaturetogethertotherealmofthe“other”.ThroughthedeathofTess,Hardyrevealsthatonlybyabandoningthearroganceof“mankindaboveallthings”andacknowledgingthesubjectivityofnatureandwomencancivilisationavoidcrushingitssoulinthemechanicalgears.3.3TheresistanceandaphasiaoftheconqueredInTessoftheD’Urbervilles,Hardyrevealsthecommondestinyofthesubjugatedunderpatriarchyandindustrialcivilisation,theinevitabilityofresistanceandthedestinyofaphasia,throughthedoubletragedyofTessandnature.Tess’sactofstranglingYarewiththeflaxropeistheultimateoutbreakoftheoppressedpeopleatthebottomofthehierarchy,aqualitativechangefromthe“aphasicobject”tothe“subjectofaction”.Theflaxcomesfromtheflaxfieldshetendedinherchildhood,thetoughnessoftheplantfibreandthememoryofthelandarecondensedintoaweaponofresistance,andthestrangulationactionismirroredbythemechanicalviolenceofthesteamthreshercrushingtheearsofwheat,whichimpliesthattheunderclassresistancesharesthesamelogicofviolencewiththeindustrialoppression,butthecausesarecompletelydifferent.Tess’saphasiaisnotonlyapersonaldilemma,butalsoamicrocosmoftheoverallaphasiaofagriculturalcivilisationintheindustrialwave.“Ifnaturalresourcescouldbemorerationallyunderstoodandmorerichlyandintelligentlyused,theabundanceofnaturewouldnotbeexhausted”(Carolyn276).Insteadwhenthesteamenginereplacesthescytheandnaturalresourcesareexploitedandplunderedwithoutlimit,whentheBiblereplacesthefolksongandthevoiceofthevanquishedispermanentlybanishedtothemarginsofhistory,TessisatthetopoftheFlintstoneAsTesslaboursonthefarm,theroarofthesteamthreshingmachinecompletelymuffleshergasps,symbolisingthecompletesuppressionofthebreathoflifebyindustrialcivilisation.Tess’sencounterwiththeecofeministvisionofherdeathisnottheend,butapreludetothevengeanceofnature’scomplicitywithwomen.

Chapter4.Theenlightenmentofecofeminism4.1TherootcausesofTess’stragedyTheDeathofNature:Women,Ecology,andtheScientificRevolutionemphasisesthat“ecofeminismisaffectedbytheintersectionofgender,class,andracialoppressionwithecologicalcrisis”(Merchant168-169).ThetragedyofTessinHardy’swritingisshapedbyacombinationofpatriarchy,capitalism,religiousmorality,andanthropocentrism,andwhatultimatelykillsTessisthetotalsiegeoftheentireeraonthevitalityofnatureandwomen.ThesexualassaultofYareDeBurghandthespiritualabandonmentofClayAngelconstituteadoublecolonisationofTess’sbodyandsoul,withYarereducingTesstothestatusof“prey”throughphysicalviolence,andClaymorallyjudgingTess,callingher“theotherTess”.Tessisforcedtobecomeanitinerantlabourer,thevalueofherworkalienatedintopiece-ratewages,herhandscrackedandbleedingfromtheroarofthesteamthreshingmachine,whilethefarmer’sledgerregistersanincreaseinprofit,herbodyandthelandbecomingtherawmaterialofexploitation.WhenTessisdismissedbecausesheispregnant,heremployerwithholdsthelastcycleofwages.ThecollectivemoralviolenceofthecommunityblamingTessforher“lossofvirginity”,thepriestrefusingtobaptiseherillegitimatechild,thevillagersbanishingherwithrumours,andevenherownmother’sacquiescencetoher“tradingherbodyforherlife”isessentiallyapatriarchalviolationofthefemalebody.Thechurch’srefusaltoblesstheillegitimateson’sfuneral,butitsacquiescencetoAare’s“penance”,andClay'sabandonmentofTess,whilemakinglightofhisdesires,arenottoolsofsalvation,butrathermoralweaponsforthedefenceofmaleprivilege.4.2ThesolutionsofecofeminismFromaneco-feministperspective,thenovelcombinestheoppressionofwomenandnatureinapatriarchalsociety,reflectingtheircommonfateofbeingexploitedandobjectified.Exploringthepathofecofeministsolutions,itemphasisestheneedtobreakdownbinaryoppositions,opposestheformationofoppositionsbetweenwomenandmen,natureandcivilisation,andcallsfortherecognitionofwomenandnatureasdynamicratherthanpassiveobjects.Examiningthereconstructionofsymbioticethics,thenovelemphasisestheneedtoreconstructtherelationshipbetweenmanandnaturethroughtheportrayalofTess’ssymbiosiswithnature.4.2.1Breaking