世界银行- 加强分裂社会群体间凝聚力的证据到行动框架 Evidence-to-Action Framework for Strengthening Intergroup Cohesion in Divided Societies

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WORLDBANKGROUPSocialPolicy

SocialPolicy&LaborDiscussionPaper

No.2627|June2026

Evidence-to-ActionFrameworkfor

Strengthening

IntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

MarineGassierMeltemIkindjiPatrickBarron

June2026

WORLDBANKGROUPSocialPolicy

STATEAND

PFPFUEANCDEBUDNG

SocialPolicy&LaborDiscussionPaper

No.2627|June2026

Evidence-to-ActionFrameworkfor

Strengthening

IntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

MarineGassierMeltemIkindjiPatrickBarron

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AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkfor

Strengthening

IntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

Abstract

Deepdivisionsbetweensocialgroups,rootedinlong-standingsocial,eco-nomic,andinstitutionalfoundations,slowdevelopment,weakeninstitutions,andcanunravelyearsofprogress.Thispapersetsoutaframeworkfor

strengtheningintergroupcohesionindividedsocietiesandofferspractical

guidancefordevelopmentteams.Itsynthesizesfindingsonfiveinterventionmodalitieswithprovenimpacts(collaborativecontact,intergroupdialogue,perspectivetaking,mediationtraining,andedutainment)andguides

practitionersonmatchingeachtocontext.Effectsacrossrigorous

evaluationsareconsistentbutmodest,pointingtoincrementalratherthan

transformativechange.DrawingoncasestudiesfromSub-SaharanAfrica,

theMiddleEast,andbeyond,theframeworkoffersdiagnostictools,illus-

trativeindicators,andoperationalguidanceforembeddingcohesionactivi-tiesintoprojectsandtrackingresultsovertime.

Keywords:SocialCohesion;Fragility,Conflict,andViolence;

Community-LedDevelopment;Post-ConflictRecovery;

DividedSocieties

JELCodes:D74,J15,O1,Z13

SocialPolicyandLaborDiscussionPaperSeriesFY2026ToviewthefullDiscussionPaperseries,pleasevisit:

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TheseriesisalsoindexedonIDEASandtheResearchPapersinEconomics(RePEC)database:

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Acknowledgments

ThethreeauthorsareaffiliatedwiththeWorldBank.TheviewsexpressedinthispaperarethoseoftheauthorsaloneandshouldnotbeattributedtotheWorldBank,itsExecutive

Directors,orthecountriestheyrepresent.Allremainingerrorsoffactandinterpretationareours.Emailaddressforcorrespondence:

mgassier@

.WethankYashodhan

Ghorpade,NessaKenny,JuliaLendorfer,RobinMearns,NikolasMyint,JulietteWilson,andSusanWongfortheirvaluablefeedbackandsubstantivecontributionstothispaper.ThisworkwasconductedthankstofundingfromtheStateandPeacebuildingTrustFund.

Graphicdesign

LuísaUlhoa

Tableofcontents

1.

Introduction 1

2.

Analyticalframeworkforunderstandingintergroupcohesion 4

2.1.

Foundations 4

2.2.

Pathways 5

3.

Frompathwaystointerventions 9

3.1.

CollaborativeContact 9

3.2.

IntergroupDialogue 11

3.3.

PerspectiveTaking 12

3.4.

Mediation(DisputeResolution)Training 14

3.5.

Edutainment 15

4.

StrengtheningandtrackingintergroupcohesionwithinBankprojects 17

4.1.

Defininggroups,asymmetries,andinteractionarenas 17

4.2.

Evaluatingthecaseforinvestinginintergroupcohesion 19

4.3.

Selectingpathwaysandmodalitiesthatfittheproblemandcontext 22

4.4.

EmbeddingcohesioninterventionsintoBankoperations 25

4.5.

Trackingintergroupcohesion 35

5.

Conclusion 42

Annex1Methodsformeasuringintergroupcohesion 43

Implicationsforsampling 44

Challengesofmeasuringintergroupdynamics 44

Annex2Illustrativelistofinterventionsunderthethreepathways

(contact,narratives,skills) 46

Annex3Observedimpactsacrossinterventioncategoriesandoutcome

areas–Keyfindingsfromthe3iesystematicreview 53

References 55

1.Introduction

Deepdivisionsbetweensocialgroupsposeoneofthemostpersistentthreatstodevelopmentprogress.Communitiesandsocietiescanfracturealongmulti-plelinesofdifference:ethnicorreligiousidentity,language,politicaltraditionoraffiliation,economicstatus,occupation,orrefugeeversushostcommunitysta-tus.Whensuchfracturesoccur,theconsequencesextendfarbeyondsocialten-sions.Theyundermineeconomicgrowthandjobcreationbydisruptingmarketsandreducingproductivity,destabilizeinstitutionsbyerodingtrustingovernancesystems,andcanerasedecadesofdevelopmentgainsthroughconflictand

socialbreakdown.Recentglobalcrises,fromviolentconflicttoclimatechangeandeconomicdownturns,haveintensifiedthesedivisions,creatingacascadeofchallengesthatdemandtargetedattentionandwell-designedresponses.

Buildingtrustandcooperationbetweendividedgroupsisessentialnotonly

topreventconflict,butalsotoachievedevelopmentgoals,tocreatejobs,andtorespondeffectivelytosharedchallenges.Strongintergroupcohesionen-ablesdiversecommunitiestopursuesharedgoals,managecommonresourcesequitably,andresolvedisputesthroughpeacefulmeansratherthanviolence

(Casey2018;Kingetal.2010).Italsobuildsresilienceagainstexternalshocksbyfosteringinclusiveresponsestocrisesandreducingtheriskthattempo-

rarysetbackswilltriggerlastingconflict(MercyCorps2024;Minetal.2017).Conversely,weakintergroupcohesioncreatesaviciouscyclewheredivisionsobstructeffortstoreduceinequality,whilegrowinginequalityfurthererodestrustbetweengroups.

Thisfocusonintergroupdynamicssitswithinthebroaderframeworkofso-

cialcohesion,definedas“asenseofsharedpurpose,trustandwillingnessto

cooperateamongmembersofagivengroup,betweenmembersofdifferent

groups,andbetweenpeopleandthestateforcommongood”(Chatterjeeetal.2023,p.9).Thisdefinitionencompassesthreeinterrelateddimensions:bondingrelationswithingroups,bridgingrelationsacrossdifferentgroups,andlinking

relationsbetweenindividualsandstateinstitutions(Loeweetal.2021).Whileallthreedimensionsmatter,thisoperationalhow-tonotefocusesspecifically

onthebridgingdimension—intergroupcohesion—asitrepresentsbothacriticalvulnerabilityandastrategicentrypointfordevelopmentinterventionsseeking

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

1

tobuildmoreinclusive,resilientsocieties.Inthispaper,“dividedsocieties”are

contextswheresocialgroupsareseparatedbymistrust,stigma,unequalpower,orcompetingclaimsoverresources,andwherethesedividesshapeeveryday

interactions,whetherornotviolenceisongoing.Thequalityofintergrouprela-tionscanbeassessedthroughthreeinterrelatedaspects:attitudes(stereotypes,fears,andtrust),norms(perceivedexpectationsabouthowgroupsshouldtreatoneanother,includingtoleranceofdiscriminationorsupportforcooperation),andbehaviors(patternsofinteraction,includingwhomixeswithwhom,who

cooperates,andhowdisputesarehandled).

Atleasttwopersistentchallengesundermineeffortstostrengthenintergroupcohesionthroughdevelopmentprojects.First,thecomplexandcontext-spe-cificnatureofintergroupdynamicscomplicatesbothdiagnosisanddesign.

Divisionsbetweengroupsemergefromcombinationsofhistoricalgrievances,

powerimbalances,economicdisparities,andinstitutionalfailuresthatcanvaryevenwithinagivensociety.Thiscreatesthedifficultchallengeofconducting

diagnosticsthatarebothdeepenoughtocapturetheseunderlyingdrivers

andactionableenoughtoinformpracticalinterventionswithintypicalproject

constraints.Withoutbalancingthetwo,theresultinginterventionsmaybetoosuperficialtoaddresstherealdynamicsatplay,toocomplexandambitioustobefeasiblyimplemented,ortooinsensitivetolocalcontextsandpowerdynam-ics,riskingunintendedbacklashthatdeepensexistingdivisions.

Second,whileevidenceonintergroupcohesioninterventionsisgrowing,trans-latingresearchfindingsintopracticalguidancenecessitatesdeepengagementwithnuancedinsights.Studiesshowthatwhatworksdependsheavilyonlocalcontext,participantcharacteristics,andimplementationapproaches,creating

acomplexwebofconditionalfindings.Thismakesitessentialtoorganizethe

evidencebaseinwaysthathelpdevelopmentactorsmoreeasilyidentifywhichapproachesandimplementationstrategiesaremostapplicableandadaptabletothecontextsinwhichtheyoperate.

Thisoperationalhow-tonoterespondstothesechallengesbyprovidingstruc-tured,evidence-basedrecommendationsfordesigningpractical,contextuallygroundedinterventions.Itaimstoprovideguidancetooperationalproject

teamsandteamleaders.Drawingonanexpandingbodyofevidenceonthedeterminantsofintergrouprelationsandtheefficacyofdifferentapproaches

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

2

torepairingintergroupcohesion,itisintendedtosupportdevelopmentactorsworkinginenvironmentsmarkedbyentrenchedgrievances,unresolvedten-

sions,orincreasinglyvolatilesituationsbetweengroups.Morespecifically,thispaperoffersthreecomplementaryresources.First,itprovidesananalytical

frameworkthatmapstheterrainofintergrouprelationsandidentifiespath-

waysforstrengtheningthem.Second,itdetailsspecificinterventionmodali-tiesalignedwiththesepathways,includingevidenceontheirefficacy.Third,itprovidesactionablerecommendationsforconductingoperationallyrelevantdiagnostics,embeddinginterventionswithinBankoperations,andtracking

theirimpacts.

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

3

2.Analyticalframeworkforunderstandingintergroupcohesion

2.1.Foundations

Theshapeofintergrouprelationsinanysocietyreflectsdeep-rootedsocial,

economic,andinstitutionalfactorsthatinfluencehowgroupsperceive,relateto,andengagewithoneanother.Theselayeredfactorsformthecomplexter-

rainthatalldevelopmentinterventionsimplementedindividedsocietiesand

communitiesmustnavigate.Deliberateengagementwiththesedynamicsis

essentialtoupholdprinciplesofequityanddonoharm,ensuringthatinterven-tionsdonotinadvertentlydeepenentrencheddivisions.Wheninterventions

explicitlyaimtorepairintergrouprelations,thisengagementmustbeevenmoreintentionalandnuanced,requiringadeepunderstandingofhowsocial,eco-

nomic,andinstitutionalforcesinteract.

Socialdynamicsformthefirstfoundationallayerofintergrouprelations.

Historicallegacies,entrenchedsocialhierarchies,distortedpowerdynamics,and

exclusivenetworksofaffiliationshapegroupidentitiesinprofoundways.While

thesefactorscansometimesprovideafoundationforpromotingunity,theycan

oftenperpetuatestigmatizingnarrativesandreinforcerigid“usversusthem”dis-

tinctionsthatentrenchdivisions(Prattoetal.2013;WoolcockandNarayan2000).

Disparitiesinaccesstoeconomicopportunitiesamplifyandreinforcethese

socialdivisions.Whenaccesstoland,livelihoods,orpublicservicesfollows

identitylines—whetherethnic,religious,orregional—perceptionsofinjustice

intensifydramatically(CollettaandCullen2000).Suchidentity-basedeconomicmarginalizationbothdeepensgroup-basedgrievancesandreducesopportuni-tiesformeaningfulintergroupcooperation.

Institutionalframeworkscaneitherperpetuateorchallengetheseunderlyingdynamics.Discriminatorypolicies,biasedlawenforcement,exclusionarygover-nancestructures,andweakgrievancemechanismsreinforcegrouphierarchies

andtensions.Incontrast,institutionsthatguaranteeequalaccesstojustice,en-surerepresentativedecision-making,andprotectminorityrightscanbuildtrustandcreatespaceforcooperationacrossgrouplines(Ndinga-Kangaetal.2020).

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

4

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

Thesethreefoundationallayers—social,economic,andinstitutional—manifestthroughbehaviors,norms,andattitudesthatjointlyestablishthedynamics

ofintergrouprelations(Figure1).Behaviorsarethemostvisibleaspect—fromdailyinteractionsinsharedspacestowhethergroupscooperateoravoideachotherinworkandcommunitylife.Thesebehaviorsareshapedbynorms—theunwrittenrulesabouthowdifferentgroupsshouldorshouldnotinteractwitheachother.Atthedeepestlevelareattitudes—thebeliefs,biases,andfeelingsthatgroupsholdaboutoneanother.Theseattitudesinfluencebehaviors,buttheyarealsoshapedbyrepeatedexperiencesovertime.

FiGuRE1Foundationsofintergroupinteractionpatterns

Theinterplayofsocial,economic,andinstitutionalforcesshapesintergrouprelations

SocialDynamics

Historicallegacies

andpowerhierarchies

Deep-rootedintergrouppatterns

EconomicDisparities

Unequalresource

distribution

5

InstitutionalFrameworks

Policiesand

organizationalstructures

2.2.Pathways

Whilethedeep-rootedfoundationsofintergrouprelationsshiftslowlyand

resistdirectintervention,agrowingbodyofevidencedemonstratesthattar-geteddevelopmentprogramscanmeaningfullyimproveintergroupdynamicsthroughthreedistinctpathways:facilitatingpositiveintergroupcontact,

shiftingharmfulnarratives,andbuildingbridgingskills.1Rigorousevaluations

1SeeAnnex3forasummaryofthemainstudiesincludedinthereviewoftheevidence.

consistentlyshowthatinterventionsacrossallthreepathwayscanproduce

significantchangesinbehaviors,norms,orattitudes—andofteninmultipledi-mensionssimultaneously.Thoughthemagnitudeofchangeistypicallymodest,theseeffectsrepresentgenuineentrypointsfortransformation.Ratherthan

wholesaleshiftsinintergrouprelations,interventionsthroughthesethreepath-ways(furtherdescribedbelow)createtheconditionsandmomentumnecessaryformorefundamentalchangeovertime.

Facilitatingcollaborativecontactinvolvescreatingmeaningfulandrepeatedopportunitiesformembersofdifferentgroupstointeractinpositiveways.

Intergroupcontactcantakeseveralforms,includingdirectcontact(face-to-faceinteractions)andindirectcontact,whichcanbefurtherbrokendownas:

extendedcontact(knowingsomeonefromyourowngroupwhohadapositivecontactwithanoutgroupmember),mediatedcontact(observingpositiveinter-groupcontactthroughdifferentcommunicationchannels),andpossiblyevenimaginedcontact(visualizingapositiveencounterwithanoutgroupmember)(Vezzalietal.2017;Wrightetal.1997).Thispathwayisparticularlyeffectiveinlow-contactorsegregatedsettings,whereitcanlaythegroundworkforfoster-ingempathyandunderstandingbetweengroups(PettigrewandTropp2006).

Shiftingharmfulnarrativesleveragesstorytelling,mediacampaigns,and

edutainmenttotransformhowgroupsareseenandunderstoodinthepublic

sphere.Thispathwaychallengesdivisiverhetoricandstereotypeswhileculti-

vatinginclusiveandforward-lookingnarratives.Comparedtointergroupcontact(discussedabove),shiftingharmfulnarrativesoffersascalablewaytoreach

broaderaudiences,includingthosereluctanttoengagewiththeoutgroup,andremainsrelevantacrossbothlow-andhigh-contactsettings(Paluck2009).

Buildingbridgingskillsrepresentsacomprehensiveapproachtostrengtheningindividuals’andgroups’capacityforconstructiveintergroupengagement.Thispathwayoperatesthroughtwointerconnectedskilldomains.Thefirstinvolves

conflictmanagementskills,includingmediation,negotiation,anddisputeadjudi-cation.Suchskillsfacilitateconstructive,sustainableresolutionofdisagreementsandhelpavoidtheirviolentescalation.Thesecondencompassescognitive-emo-tionalbridgingskills,suchasperspective-taking,empathy,andcriticalthinking,whichenabledeeperunderstandingacrossgroupboundaries(Lederach1997).

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

6

Combiningthesetechnicalandinterpersonalcompetenciescanbeaneffectivewaytoimproverelationsincontextswheregroupsinteractregularly.

Thesethreepathwaysdonotoperateinisolationfromthedeep-rootedsocial,economic,andinstitutionalfactorsthatshapeintergrouprelations.Rather,

theireffectivenessdependsonhowwelltheyengagewiththeseunderlying

dynamics.Effortstoactivatecontact,narrativechange,orskill-buildingwhile

ignoringunderlyingpowerdynamics,historicalgrievances,ordiscriminatory

institutionsriskfallingflatorevenbackfiring.Thebetterthesefoundational

factorsareunderstood,themorefeasibleitbecomestoidentifyrealisticoppor-tunitiesforchangeanddesigncredibleinterventionsalongthesepathways.Indoingso,interventionscanloosenentrencheddivisions,reducevolatility,and

generateincrementalprogresstowardrepairingrelationshipsbetweengroups.

Identifyingwherechangeismostfeasiblealsorequiresfocusingonspecific,

measurabledimensionsofintergroupcohesion.Theexistingbodyofevidenceindicatesthatinterventionsacrossallthreepathwayscanproduceobservable

shiftsinfivekeyareasthatbothcapturetheessenceofintergrouprelationsandthatarepossibletoimpactwithintypicalprojecttimeframes(Figure2):

⁍Trust:Thebeliefthatmembersofothergroupswillactwithgoodwillandnotintentionallycauseharm,evenwhentheyhavethepowertodoso

(Leiningeretal.2021;Kimetal.2020).

⁍Senseofbelonging:Theextenttowhichindividualsorgroupsfeelaccept-edandvaluedwithinbroadersociety,despitecultural,religious,orethnicdifferences(Chanetal.2006).

⁍Willingnesstoparticipate:Engagementinpoliticalorcivicactivitiesalong-sidemembersofothergroups,whichenhancesbridgingcapitalthrough

collectiveaction(Chanetal.2006).

⁍Willingnesstohelp:Prosocialbehaviorssuchasvolunteeringorcommuni-tyservicethatsignalsolidarityacrossgrouplinesandbuildinclusivesocialnetworks(Moayed2019;GrimaldaandTnzer2018).

⁍Acceptanceofdiversity:Recognizingandrespectingothers’righttoexpresstheirvalues,identities,andwaysoflife—centraltobuildingcohesivesociet-ieswheredifferenceisvalued(Kimetal.2020).

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

7

FiGuRE2Pathwaystostrongerintergroupcohesion

Trust

SenseofBelonging

WilllingnesstoParticipate

WillingnesstoHelp

AcceptanceofDiversity

Positive

IntergroupContact

Shifting

Harmful

Narratives

Building

BridgingSkills

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

8

3.Frompathwaystointerventions

Drawingfromacollectionofrigorousevaluations,fiveinterventiontypeshaveemergedasparticularlyeffectiveatoperationalizingthepathwaysdescribedintheframework:collaborativecontact,intergroupdialogue,perspectivetaking,mediationtraining,andedutainment.Theseinterventionsstrategicallyleveragecontact,narratives,andskills,individuallyorincombination,torepairrelation-shipsbetweendividedgroups.Thissectionexamineswhateachintervention

entails,andwhereitcanprovemostrelevant.Italsosummarizestheevidenceontheeffectivenessofeachapproachandincludesrecommendationsforsuc-cessfulimplementation.

TABLE1Intergroupcohesioninterventionsbypathwaysandintergroupcontactpatterns

Interventions

Pathways

Intergroupcontactpattern(High/Lowfrequency)

Collaborativecontact

Contact

Low

Intergroupdialogue

Narrativesandskills

High

Perspectivetaking

Narrativesandskills

Lowandhigh

Mediationtraining

Skills

High

Edutainment

Narratives

Lowandhigh

3.1.CollaborativeContact

Mechanismsofchange

Collaborativecontactinterventionsaimtoreduceprejudiceandimproveinter-grouprelationsbycreatingstructured,repeatedopportunitiesformeaningfulinteractionthatcenteronsharedtasksratherthangroupidentities.While

increasedknowledgeabouttheoutgroupisonepathway,thetheoryofchangealsoholdsthatworkingtowardcommongoalscanreduceperceptionsofthreatbyencouragingmorepersonalized,lesscategory-basedperceptions,which

togethersupportattitudechange.Positive,cooperativeexperiencescanalsocreateadiscrepancybetweenpreviouslyheldnegativeattitudesandactual

AnEvidence-to-ActionFrameworkforStrengtheningIntergroupCohesioninDividedSocieties

9

interactions,promptingattitudeadjustmentovertime(BrewerandBrown1998;BrewerandMiller1996).Evidencefromameta-analysisindicatesthatcontactreliablyreducesprejudiceacrossdiversesettings,evenwhentherecommendedconditionsareonlypartlysatisfied(PettigrewandTropp2006).Aconcrete

examplecomesfromNigeria,wherecontactamonghigh-riskyoungmenfromdifferentreligiousbackgroundswasembeddedinacomputerliteracycourse

organizedaroundcollaborativegroupwork,illustratinghowjointtaskscan

anchorcontactinpracticalcooperation(ScaccoandWarren2018).Onaverage,observedimpactsonbehaviorsandattitudesaresignificant,butmodest.Theyarestronger,however,wheninteractionsarefrequent,meaningful,andvolun-

tary(PettigrewandTropp2008,2006).

Applicabilityandreach

Theseinterventionsaremostapplicableinsegregatedcommunitiesandar-

easmarkedbyexclusionwheredirectcontactisrareandoftenavoided,or

interactionsarelimitedandfraught.Insuchcontexts,collaborativeintergroupcontactcanopenspaceforfirstcontactandsparkwillingnesstoengageinnewsharedactivities.Whereregularinteractionalreadyexists,thefocusmayshift

fromincreasingthefrequencyofencounterstoimprovingtheirqualitythroughstructured,cooperativeengagementthatdeepenscollaboration(Sonnenfeld

etal.2021).Small-scaleprogramscommonlyyieldinitialgainsa