管理经济学（第14版） 课件 第14章　高级定价技巧

Chapter14AdvancedPricingTechniquesMANAGERIALECONOMICSFoundationsofBusinessAnalysisandStrategyFourteenthEditionCHRISTOPHERR.THOMAS©McGrawHillLLC.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGrawHillLLC.LearningObjectives14.1Explainwhyuniformpricingdoesnotgeneratemaximumpossibletotalrevenueandhowpricediscriminationcangeneratemorerevenue.14.2Explainhowtopracticefirst‐degreepricediscriminationtoearngreaterrevenueandprofitthanchargingauniformprice.14.3Explainhowtopracticesecond‐degreepricediscriminationbyusingeithertwo-partpricingordecliningblockpricing.14.4Explainhowtopracticethird‐degreepricediscrimination.14.5Determineprofit‐maximizingpriceswhenafirmsellsmultipleproductsrelatedinconsumptionandexplainhowfirmscanprofitablybundleproductsforasingleprice.14.6Understandwhycost‐pluspricingusuallyfailstomaximizeprofit.2AdvancedPricingTechniquesPricediscriminationMultipleproductsCost-pluspricing3CapturingConsumerSurplusUniformpricing

ischargingthesamepriceforeveryunitoftheproduct.Capturingconsumersurplusisdevisingpricingschemestotransformconsumersurplusintoeconomicprofit.Pricediscriminationischargingdifferentpricesforthesameproductforthepurposeofcapturingconsumersurplus.Moreprofitablealternativetouniformpricing.Marketconditionsmustallowthispracticetobeprofitablyexecuted.4Figure14.1TheTroubleWithUniformPricingAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.5ProfitabilityWithPriceDiscriminationThreeconditionsarenecessarytopracticepricediscriminationprofitably:Firmmustpossesssomedegreeofmarketpower.Acost-effectivemeansofpreventingresalebetweenlower-andhigher-pricebuyers(consumerarbitrage)mustbeimplemented.Priceelasticitiesmustdifferamongindividualbuyersorgroupsofbuyers.6PriceDiscriminationConsumerarbitrageiswhenlow-pricebuyersresellaproducttobuyersinahigh-pricemarket,whichestablishesasingle,uniformprice.Pricediscriminationexistswhentheprice-to-marginalcostratiodiffersbetweenmarkets:7First-Degree(orPerfect)PriceDiscriminationEveryunitissoldforthemaximumpriceeachconsumeriswillingtopay,whichallowsthefirmtocapturetheentireconsumersurplus.Difficulties:Requirespreciseknowledgeabouteverybuyer’sdemandforthegood.Sellermustnegotiateadifferentpriceforeveryunitsoldtoeverybuyer.8Figure14.2First-Degree(Perfect)PriceDiscrimination:CapturingAllConsumerSurplusAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.9Second-DegreePriceDiscriminationSecond-degreepricediscriminationiswhenafirmofferslowerpricesforlargerquantitiesandletsbuyersself-selectthepricetheypaybychoosinghowmuchtobuy.Whenthesameconsumerbuysmorethanoneunitofagoodorserviceatatime,themarginalvalueplacedonadditionalunitsdeclinesasmoreunitsareconsumed.10Two-PartPricingTwo-partpricingisaformofsecond-degreepricediscriminationthatchargesbuyersafixedaccesscharge(A)topurchaseasmanyunitsastheywishforaconstantfee(f)perunit.Totalexpenditure(TE)forQunitsis:11ConsumersWithIdenticalDemandsWhenconsumershaveidenticaldemandsforaproduct(anddemandispreciselyknown),theentireconsumersurpluscanbecapturedthroughtwo-partpricingby:Settingf*=MC.SettingA*=consumersurplus

(CS).Optimalusagefeewhentwogroupsofbuyershaveidenticaldemandsisthelevelforwhich12Figure14.3InverseDemandCurveforEachof100IdenticalSeniorGolfersAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.13Figure14.4DemandatNorthvaleGolfClub:SeniorsandWeekendPlayerGroupsAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.14DecliningBlockPricingDecliningblockpricingisaformofsecond-degreepricediscriminationthatoffersquantitydiscountsoversuccessiveblocksofquantitiespurchased.15Figure14.5BlockPricingWithFiveBlocksAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.16Third-DegreePriceDiscriminationWiththird-degreepricediscrimination,firmscanidentifyandseparateamarketintotwoormoresubmarketsandchargeadifferentpriceineachsubmarket.Ifafirmsellsintwomarkets,1and2:Allocateoutput(sales)soTotalmarginalrevenueisthechangeinattributabletoanincreaseinwhentheextraoutputisallocatedtomaintainequalmarginalrevenuesinbothmarkets.OptimaltotaloutputisthatforwhichForprofitmaximization,allocatesalesoftotaloutputsothat:17Equal-Marginal-RevenuePrincipleAllocatingoutput(sales)soMR1=MR2whichwillmaximizetotalrevenueforthefirm(TR1+TR2).Moreelasticmarketgetsalowerprice.Lesselasticmarketgetsahigherprice.18Figure14.6AllocatingSalesBetweenTwoMarkets:TheEqualMarginalRevenuePrincipleAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.19Figure14.7ConstructingtheTotalMarginalRevenueCurve(MRT):HorizontalSummationAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.20Figure14.8ProfitMaximizationUnderThird-DegreePriceDiscriminationAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.21MultiproductFirmsProductsthatareusedtogetherandpurchasedtogetherarecomplementsinconsumption.Ifproductsaresubstitutesandbuyerspurchaseonlyoneofthefirm’sproducts,theproductsaresubstitutesinconsumption.Fortwoproductsrelatedinconsumption,XandY,produceandselllevelsofoutputforwhich:•isafunctionnotonlyofbutalsoofconditionsmustbesatisfiedsimultaneously.22BundlingMultipleProductsWhenpricediscriminationisnotpossible,bundlingmultiplegoodsandchargingasinglepricecanbemoreprofitablethanchargingindividualpricesformultiplegoods.Bundlingissellingabundleoftwoormoreproductsatasingleprice.Twoconditionsforprofitablebundling:Consumersmusthavedifferentdemandpricesforeachgoodinthebundle.Demandpricesmustbenegativelycorrelatedacrossconsumertypes.23Table14.1DemandPricesforFamilyandAdultChannelPackages(MonthlySubscriptionFees)NumberofViewerTypeTypeofViewerFamilyPackageOnlyAdultPackageOnlyFamilyandAdultBundle2,000Family-oriented$100$50$1502,000Adult-oriented2510012524Cost-PlusPricingCost-pluspricingisamethodofdeterminingpricebysettingpriceequaltoaveragetotalcostplusaportion(m)ofATCasamarkup.Pricechargedrepresentsamarkup(margin)overaveragetotalcost:

P=(1+m)ATCwheremisthemarkuponunitcost.Doesnotgenerallyproduceprofit-maximizingprice.Failstoincorporateinformationondemandandmarginalrevenue.Usesaverage,notmarginal,cost.25Figure14.9PracticalProblemsWithCost-PlusPricingAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.26Summary1Managerswishtoavoiduniformpricingbecauseitcreatestoomuchconsumersurplus.Pricediscrimination:chargingdifferentpricesforthesameproductforthepurposeofcapturingconsumersurplusandturningitintoeconomicprofit.Underfirst-degreepricediscrimination,thefirmchargeseachconsumerthemaximumpricetheconsumeriswillingtopayforeveryunitpurchased.Second-degreepricediscriminationreducestheaveragepriceastheamountpurchasedincreasesandletsbuyersself-selectthepricetheypaybychoosinghowmuchtobuy.Twomethods:two-partpricinganddecliningblockpricing.27Summary2Whenafirmsellsintwodistinctmarkets,1and2,itcanpracticethird-degreepricediscriminationbyallocatingoutputorsalesbetweenthetwomarketssuchthatWhenafirmproducestwoproducts,X

andY,thefirmmaximizesprofitbyproducingandsellingoutputlevelsforwhichManagerswhousecost-pluspricingtosetpriceswillfailtomaximizeprofitbecausecost-pluspricingfacesanumberofpracticalandtheoreticalproblems.Cost-pluspricingisflawedbecauseitemploysaverageratherthanmarginalcost,anditdoesnotincorporateconsiderationofdemandconditions.28EndofMainContent©McGrawHillLLC.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGrawHillLLC.AccessibilityContent:TextAlternativesforImages30Figure14.1TheTroubleWithUniformPricing-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandcostindollarsrangingfrom0to10inincrementsof1unit.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantityrangingfrom0to10,000inincrementsof1,000units.AlineDwithanegativeslopestartsata(0,10),passesthroughthepointsU(3,000,7),F(6,000,4),andendsatpoint(10,000,0).AlineMRwithanegativeslopestartsata(0,10),passesthroughapointd(3,000,4),andendsat(5,000,0).AhorizontallinelabeledMCequalsACstartsat(0,4),andpassesthroughthepointsd(3,000,4)and(6,000,4).Ahorizontallinebeginsat(0,7)andendsatU(3,000,7).Apointeisplottedat(3,000,0)andpointgisplottedat(6,000,0).Thegraphenclosesanareaofthetriangleformedbythepointsata(0,10),U(3,000,7),andb(0,7).Also,enclosesanareaofthetriangleformedbythepointsatU(3,000,7),d(3,000,4),andF(6,000,4).Notethattheabove-mentionedcoordinatevaluesareactualvalues.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.31Figure14.2First-Degree(Perfect)PriceDiscrimination:CapturingAllConsumerSurplus-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandcostindollarsrangingfrom0to10inincrementsof1unit.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantityrangingfrom0to10,000inincrementsof1,000units.AlinelabeledDequalsMR,withanegativeslopestartsata(0,10),passesthroughthepointsU(3,000,7),F(6,000,4),andendsatpoint(10,000,0).AhorizontallinelabeledMCequalsACstartsat(0,4),andpassesthroughthepointF(6,000,4).Ahorizontallinebeginsat(0,7)andendsatU(3,000,7).Apointgisplottedat(6,000,0).Thegraphenclosesanarea,labeledtotalrevenueequalsarea0gFaequals42,000dollars,formedbythelineaF,Fg,verticalaxis,andhorizontalaxis.Notethattheabove-mentionedcoordinatevaluesareactualvalues.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.32Figure14.3InverseDemandCurveforEachof100IdenticalSeniorGolfers-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandcostindollarsperroundrangingfrom0to125.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantityinroundsofgolfperyearrangingfrom0to250.Aline,labeledDsubscriptSRcolonPsubscriptSRequals125minus0.5QsubscriptSR,withnegativeslopestartsatpointc(0,125),passesthroughthepointsu(115,67.50),e(230,10)andendsatpointg(250,0).Adashedline,labeledMRsubscriptSR,withanegativeslope,startsata(0,125),andpassesthroughapointd(115,10).Ahorizontalline,labeledSMCequalsAVC,startsatpointa(0,10),andpassesthroughthepointsd(115,10)ande(230,10).Ahorizontallinebeginsatb(0,67.60)andendsatu(115,67.50).Apointfisplottedat(230,0).Thegraphenclosesanareaformedbythelinesce,ef,theverticalaxis,andthehorizontalaxis.Notethattheabove-mentionedcoordinatevaluesareactualvalues.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.33Figure14.4DemandatNorthvaleGolfClub:SeniorsandWeekendPlayerGroups-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThefirstgraphistitledPanelA-OneSenior'sDemand.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandcostindollarsperroundrangingfrom0to125.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantityinroundsofgolfperyearrangingfrom0to250.Aline,labeledDsubscriptSRcolonPsubscriptSRequals125minus0.5QsubscriptSR,withnegativeslopestartsat(0,125),passesthroughthepointS(170,40),andendsatpoint(250,0).Ahorizontalline,labeledSMCequalsAVC,startsatpoint(0,10)andpassesthroughpoint(170,10).Anotherhorizontalline,labeledfasterisk,beginsat(0,40)andpassesthroughS(170,40).Thegraphenclosesanarea,labeledC,formedbythehorizontallinefasterisk,theverticalaxis,andthelinethrough(0,125)andpointS.ThesecondgraphistitledPanelB-OneWeekender'sDemand.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandcostindollarsperroundrangingfrom0to120.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantityinroundsofgolfperyearrangingfrom0to120.Aline,labeledDsubscriptWKcolonPsubscriptWKequals120minusQsubscriptWK,withnegativeslopestartsat(0,120),passesthroughthepointW(80,40),andendsatpoint(120,0).Ahorizontalline,labeledSMCequalsAVC,startsatpoint(0,10)andpassesthroughpoint(110,10).Anotherhorizontalline,labeledfasterisk,beginsat(0,40)andpassesthroughW(80,40).Thegraphenclosesanarea,labeledAasterisk,formedbythehorizontallinefasterisk,theverticalaxis,andthelinethrough(0,120)andpointW.Notethattheabove-mentionedcoordinatevaluesareactualvalues.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.34Figure14.5BlockPricingWithFiveBlocks-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandcostindollars.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantity.AlineDhasanegativeslope,startsat(0,10),andpassesthroughapoint(10,9),(20,8),(30,7),(40,6),(50,5)and(60,4).AdashedlineMRhasanegativeslopethatstartsat(0,10)andpassesthrough(10,8),(20,6),(30,4),and(40,2).AhorizontallinelabeledMCequalsAC,startsat(0,4)andpassesthroughthepoints(30,4)and(60,4).Arectangularboxlabeledaisdrawnwithitsverticesat(0,7),(10,7),(10,9),and(0,9).Therectangularboxlabeledbisdrawnwithitsverticesat(0,4),(10,4),(10,7),and(0,7).Therectangularboxlabeledcisdrawnwithitsverticesat(10,7),(20,7),(20,8),and(10,8).Therectangularboxlabeleddisdrawnwithitsverticesat(10,4),(20,4),(20,7),and(10,7).Therectangularboxlabeledeisdrawnwithitsverticesat(20,4),(30,4),(30,7),and(20,7).Therectangularboxlabeledfisdrawnwithitsverticesat(30,4),(30,6),(40,6),and(40,4).Therectangularboxlabeledgisdrawnwithitsverticesat(40,4),(40,5),(50,5),and(50,4).Boxesa,c,f,andgareshadeddarkwhileboxesb,d,andeareshadedlight.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.35Figure14.6AllocatingSalesBetweenTwoMarkets:TheEqualMarginalRevenuePrinciple-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThefirstgraphistitledPanelA-market1.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandmarginalrevenueindollarsrangingfrom0to60.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantity(Qsubscript1)rangingfrom0to300.AlineDsubscript1hasanegativeslope,startsat(0,60),andpassesthroughthepoint(200,40)labeledEsubscript1equalsnegative2and(250,35).AlineMRsubscript1,hasanegativeslopestartsat(0,60),passesthrough(100,40),v(200,20),w(250,10),andendsat(300,0).ThesecondgraphistitledPanelB-market2.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandmarginalrevenueindollarsrangingfrom0to80.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledquantity(Qsubscript2)rangingfrom0to400.AlineDsubscript2hasanegativeslope,startsat(0,80),andpassesthroughthepoint(250,55)and(300,50)labeledEsubscript2equalsnegative1.67.AlineMRsubscript2,hasanegativeslopestartsat(0,80),passesthrough(200,40),wprime(250,30),vprime(300,20),andendsat(400,0).Notethattheall-mentionedcoordinatevaluesaretheactualvalues.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.36Figure14.7ConstructingtheTotalMarginalRevenueCurve(MRT):HorizontalSummation-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThefirstgraphistitledPanelA-MRinmarkets1and2.Theverticalaxisislabeledindividualmarketmarginalrevenuesindollarsrangingfrom0to80.ThehorizontalaxisislabeledquantityQsubscript1andQsubscript2rangingfrom0to400.AlineMRsubscript1hasanegativeslope,startsat(0,60),andpassesthroughthepoints(100,40),(200,20),and(300,0).AlineMRsubscript2,hasanegativeslopethatstartsat(0,80),passesthroughthepoints(100,60),(200,40),(300,20),andendsat(400,0).ThesecondgraphistitledpanelB-totalmarginalrevenuecurve.Theverticalaxisislabeledtotalmarginalrevenueindollarsrangingfrom0to80.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledtotalquantity(QsubscriptTequalsQsubscript1plusQsubscript2)rangingfrom0to700.Alineisdrawnfrompointi(0,80)topointk(100,60).ALineMRsubscriptThasanegativeslopestartingatk(100,60),andpassesthroughthepointsl(300,40),m(500,20),andn(700,0).Adashedlineisdrawnfrompointj(0,70)topointk(100,60).Notethattheall-mentionedcoordinatevaluesaretheactualvalues.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.37Figure14.8ProfitMaximizationUnderThird-DegreePriceDiscrimination-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThefirstgraphistitledPanelA-markets1and2.Theverticalaxisislabeledpriceandmarginalrevenuesindollars.ThehorizontalaxisislabeledquantitiesQsubscript1andQsubscript2.AlineMRsubscript1hasanegativeslope,startsat(0,60),passesthroughthepoint(200,20),andendsat(300,0).AlineMRsubscript2,hasanegativeslopethatstartsat(0,80),passesthroughthepointsr(200,40),(300,20),andendsat(400,0).Li