西方思想经典

RenaissanceThewordRenaissancemeans“rebirth”.TheideaofrebirthoriginatedinthebeliefthatEuropeanshadrediscoveredthesuperiorityofGreekandRomancultureaftermanycenturiesofwhattheyconsideredintellectualandculturaldecline.TheRenaissancewasaculturalmovementthatspannedtheperiodroughlyfromthe14thtothe17thcentury,beginninginItalyintheLateMiddleAgesandlaterspreadingtotherestofEurope.HistoriansoftenarguethisintellectualtransformationwasabridgebetweentheMiddleAgesandtheModernera.Asaculturalmovement,itencompassedinnovativefloweringofLatinandvernacularliteratures,beginningwiththe14th-centuryresurgenceoflearningbasedonclassicalsources.Humanistsubjectsconsistedofthemainbodyofeducation,thepraiseofhuman,humannature,andhumanlifeturnedintothekeynoteofliterature.Inpolitics,feudalismisreplacedbycentralizedpower,nationsofmodernconceptwasformed.Ineconomicfield,thisperiodwitnessedthegradualestablishmentofcapitalism,andthefastdevelopmentofbusinessandindustry.Inreligiousarea,theunificationoftheCatholicchurchwasbroken:theabsolutepowerofreligionnolongerexists;priestslostcontroloverpeople’smind;andevenincountriesofCatholicismbelievers,secularpoweroverweighedthechurch.Inthedomainofideology,theologygavewaytoscience,scholasticismwaschallengedbyhumanism.Insocialsphere,thenewly-emergingtownspeopleandbourgeoisbecamerisingclass,whichledtoelevationofpeople’ssocialstatusthroughindividualstruggleandsuccess.Itisperhapsbestknownforitsartisticdevelopments.Thoughavailabilityofpaperandtheinventionofmetalmovabletypespedthedisseminationofideasfromthelater15thcentury,thechangesoftheRenaissancewerenotuniformlyexperiencedacrossEurope.ContentsRenaissanceIdeasBirthPlaceHumanistsandArtistsinItalianRenaissanceRenaissanceinOtherEuropeanCountriesGeographicDiscoveryRenaissanceIdeasHumanismIndividualismSecularismHumanismHumanismisagroupofrationalthoughtswhichfocusesonhumanandhumannature,includingthevalue,dignityandtalentsofhumanbeings,individuallyandcollectively,andgenerallyprefersindividualthoughtandevidence(rationalism,empiricism),overestablisheddoctrineorfaith.Thepurposeofhumanismistoliberatehumanbeingsfromthebondageofreligionthroughtheadvocationofequalityamonghuman,theaffirmationofthislife,andtheassertionofpeople’srighttopersurepropertyandhappiness.Undertheinfluenceofhumanism,scholasticeducationgavewaytoclassics:rhetoric,grammar,poetry,history,Latin,Greek.IndividualismItisthebasicideaandimportantcomponentofhumanism,itisreplacementofGodstandardbyhumanstandard.DuringtheRenaissance,asapoliticalandsocialphilosophy,itstresseednotselfishnessbutindividualfreedomandwill,personnalityanduniqueness,whichactuallyestablishasetofmoralideasaccomdatingtocaptilism.Focusonindividualthought:Renaissancehumanistsbelievedthatpeopleshouldbethemselvesandnotthesameaseverybodyelse.Thisnotonlyshowshowhumanistswantedpeopletofollowtheirdreams,butalsostrengthenspeople’sinnerconfidenceandenterprisingspirit.Italsopavesthewayforindividualequality.ThoughindividualismintheRenaissanceputemphasisonindividual,itdoesn’tmeandiscardofsocialobligationandothers’interest.Instead,itcallsforindividual’sserviceandcontributiontosociety,thuslivingapositiveandhonestlife.SecularismThesecondkeycharacterofhumanismisclosecorrelationwithrealiticlifeandtheproposalofsecularism.SecularismorSecularHumanismisawayoflifeandthoughtthatispursuedwithoutreferencetoGodorreligion.“Secular”cametomean“belongingtothisage,worldly.”Ingeneralterms,secularisminvolvesanaffirmationofthis-worldlyrealities,alongwithadenialorexclusionoftranscendent,other-worldlyrealities.Itisaworldviewandlifestyleorientedtotheprofaneratherthanthesacred,thenaturalratherthanthesupernatural.Secularismisanonreligiousapproachtoindividualandsociallife.Itlaysstressonabundanceandgoodlinessofreallife.Itleadpeopletoreevaluatethevalueofpossession.Affectedbythisidea,theRenaissancecultureismoresecular-orientedthanthatinmiddleages.BirthPlaceofRenaissanceSocietyandcitieschangedinthe1300s.Specializationinagricultureincreased,resultinginmoretrade.Urbanareasbecamecentersofcommerce,particularlyinItaly.Italydidnotexistasapoliticalentityintheearlymodernperiod.Instead,itwasdividedintosmallercitystatesandterritories:theKingdomofNaplescontrolledthesouth,theRepublicofFlorenceandthePapalStatesatthecenter,theMilaneseandtheGenoesetothenorthandwestrespectively,andtheVenetianstotheeast,andthesecityrepublicsweredevotedtonotionsofliberty.ItalyappearedtohaveexitedfromFeudalismanditssocietywasbasedonmerchantsandcommerce.

Therelativepoliticalfreedomtheyaffordedwasconducivetoacademicandartisticadvancement.Likewise,thepositionofItaliancitiesmadethemintellectualcrossroads.VenicewasEurope’sgatewaytotradewiththeEast,whileFlorencewasacapitaloftextiles.Milan,westofVenice,isoneoftherichestcities,itcontrolstradethroughtheAlps.DuringtheRenaissance,moneyandartwenthandinhand.ThewealthsuchbusinessbroughttoItalymeantlargepublicandprivateartisticprojectscouldbecommissionedandindividualshadmoreleisuretimeforstudy.Besides,presenceofantiquitywasstrongerinItalythanelsewhereinEurope.HumanistsandArtistsinItalianRenaissanceHumanistsArtistsHumanistsLeonardoBruni(1370-1444)LorenzoValla(1407-1457)GiovanniPicoDellaMirandola(1463-1494)NiccoloMachiavelli(1469-1527)LeonardoBruni(1370-1444)Bruni’smostnotableworkisHistoryoftheFlorentinePeople,inwhichheglorifiedtherepublicansystemofFlorenceanditsculturalachievement,attributedtheprosperityofFlorencetobusinessmen,politiciansandculturalartistsratherthanchurchesandtheologians.Bydoingthis,hebroketheMedievaltraditionoftreatinghistoryasGod’swill,thusthisbookhasbeencalledthefirstmodernhistorybook.Bruniwasthefirsthistoriantowriteusingthethree-periodviewofhistory:Antiquity,MiddleAges,andModern,whichlaidtheconceptualgroundworkforatripartitedivisionofhistory.

WhileitprobablywasnotBruni’sintentiontosecularizehistory,thethreeperiodviewofhistoryisunquestionablysecularandforthatBrunihasbeencalledthefirstmodernhistorian.LorenzoValla(1407-1457)LorenzoVallawasanItalianhumanist,rhetorician,educator,andmostimportantlinguist.HeisbestknownforhistextualanalysisthatprovedtheDonationofConstantinewasaforgery.TheDonationofConstantineisaneighth-centuryforgerywhichsupportedthepapacy’sclaimtosupremepoliticalauthorityinwesternEurope.GiovanniPicoDellaMirandola(1463-1494)GiovanniPicodellaMirandolawasanItalianRenaissancephilosopher.HeisfamedforwritingthefamousOrationontheDignityofMan,whichhasbeencalledthe“ManifestooftheRenaissance”,andakeytextofRenaissancehumanism.PicobelievedthatmanisGod’smasterpiece,auniquebeing,andthatmanhadthefreechoicetoshapehisdestiny.Thegreatestdignityofhumanityistheboundlesspowerofself-transformation.NiccoloMachiavelli(1469-1527)NiccolòdiBernardodeiMachiavelliwasanItalianhistorian,politician,diplomat,philosopher,humanistandwriter.Hewasregardedasafounderofmodernpoliticalscience,andmorespecificallypoliticalethicsforhismasterpiece,ThePrince.Hispoliticaltheoryisbasedonhisdimviewofhumannature.Underhistheorythat“theendjustifiesthemeans”,rulermustdowhatevernecessary,evenifcruel,tomaintainpoliticalpowerwithoutworryingaboutconscience.Healsoadvisesrulerstoseparatemoralsfrompolitics.Hisideasbecamefoundationforlaterpoliticalphilosophy.RenaissanceArt

Theartisareflectionofthenewhumanistspirit.MedievalartandliteraturefocusedontheChurchandsalvation.Renaissanceartandliteraturefocusedonindividualsandworldlymatters,alongwithChristianity.

RenaissanceArtists

RenaissanceArtistsembracedsomeoftheidealsofGreeceandRomeintheirart.Theywantedtheirsubjectstoberealisticandfocusedonhumanityandemotion.NewTechniquesalsoemerged:Frescos:Paintingdoneonwetplasterbecamepopularbecauseitgavedepthtothepaintings.Sculptureemphasizedrealismandthehumanform.Architecturereachednewheightsofdesign.LeonardoDaVinci(1452-1519)TrueRenaissanceManHispaintingsarestillstudiedandadmiredWroteoutideas,filling20,000pagesofnotesHisinterests,enthusiasmboundlessHighlytalentedinallfieldsScientist,inventor,engineerandnaturalistDissectedCorpsesMonaLisaTheLastSupperNotebooksMichelangeloStudiedanatomySculpturecommunicatesgrief,love,acceptance,immortalityMarblestatueofDavidMostfamouspainting,artworkonceilingofSistineChapelScenesfromOldTestament(Genisis)consideredoneofgreatestachievementsinarthistoryDavidMichelangelocreatedhismasterpieceDavidin1504.SistineChapelAboutayearaftercreatingDavid,PopeJuliusIIsummonedMichelangelotoRometoworkonhismostfamousproject,theceilingoftheSistineChapel.Raphael(1483-1520)ManofgreatsensitivityandkindnessDiedattheageof37MostfamousworkisTheSchoolofAthensintheVaticanPalaceAlsowellknownformanypaintingsoftheMadonna,motherofJesusPythagorasPlatoandAristotleSocratesRenaissanceinOtherEuropeanCountriesRenaissanceinotherEuropeancountriesmainlyreferstoRenaissanceinnorthernEuropeannations,suchasFrance,Germany,SpainandBritain.ThefastdevelopmentofEuropeansocietypromotedideologicalandculturalcommunications.SoRenaissancethoughtswerewidelyspreaded.GrowingwealthinnorthernEuropesupportedRenaissanceideas.DiffernetfromItalianhumanists,whoturnedtoGreek-Romanclassicismdirectly,northernRenaissancethinkersmergedhumanistideaswithChristianity.SothenorthernRenaissancewasmarkedbystrongsecularcharacters.RenaissanceinFranceFrequentwarswithItaly(1515-1547)broughtbackalargenumberofartsandbooksofItalianRenaissance,whichenlargedFrenchpeople’shorizonandhelpeddisseminationofRenaissanceideas.In1530,theestablishmentofTheFrenchAcademysignifiedthebeginningofFrenchReaissance,afterthatagroupofliteraturersandscholarsgatheredtostudyGreco-Romanculture.CalvinismwasalsoanaspectofFrenchRenaissance,butitwillbeelaboratedintheReligiousReformation.LawJurist:JeanBodinThefirstmanwhosystematicallyelaborateonnationalsovereignty,whichbecamethefoundationofwesternpolitics.LiteratureNovelist:FrancoisRabelais

GargantuaandPantagruel

isapopularnovelthatstandsatthebeginningofFrenchnovels.Poets:theFrenchRenaissance“Pléiade”

agroupofradicalyoungnoblepoets

DefenseandIllustrationoftheFrenchLanguagemaintainedthatFrenchwasaworthylanguageforliteraryexpressionandadvocatedtheuseofFrench,thusmadecontributiontounificationofFranceandformationofFrenchpoem.

Essayist:MichelMontaigne

EssaisHewritesabouthisdisgustwiththereligiousconflictsofhistime,reflectingaspiritofskepticismandbeliefthathumansarenotabletoattaintruecertainty,whichimposedeffectonlaterDescartes.

RenaissanceinGermanyRenaissanceinGermanystartedfromthestudyofancientlinguistics.Humanists’firstcareconcernedwithwhetherthereligiousdoctrinesreachingthemwerecredibleornot.Sotheyputemphasisonresearchoflanguageandtranslations.ThusmanyGermanhumanistswerelinguists.ThekeyfiguresofGermanRenaissancewereDesideriusErasmusandartistAlbrechtDurer.DesideriusErasmusThePraiseofFollyAnironicialworkonignoranceofreligiouschurch.GreekeditionsoftheNewTestament

Inthemiddleages,churchesandpriestsexplianedTheBible

anditspredictionsrandomly,

thisbookprovidesanauthoritativeversionforlaterpeople’scorrectresearchonTheBible.AlbrechtDurerThegreatestartistoftheNorthernRenaissanceTheApocalypse

seriesRenaissanceinSpainUndertheinfluence,Spainishliteratureenteredintoitsgoldenperiod,withgreatachievementsinnovelanddrama,picaresquenovelwascreatedinthisperiod.

LitterateurMigueldeCervantesSaavedraHisinfluenceontheSpanishlanguagehasbeensogreatthatthelanguageisoftencalledthelanguageofCervantes.Hismostimportantwork

DonQuixote

belongstopicaresquenovel.DramaMostpopularculturalactivity.RenaissanceinBritainNovel

ThomasMoreUtopiaPoetry

EdmundSpenser

TheFaerieQueene

QualitiesofcapitalistsEssay

FrancisBaconToexpresshumanismandmaterialismthroughessaysDrama

ThomasKyd

TheSpanishTragedy

ChristopherMarloweTheJewofMaltaBothweremembersamong“universitytalents.”WilliamShakespeare

GreatestwriterintheEnglishlanguageandtheworld’spre-eminentdramatistAlsocalledEngland’snationalpoetReasonsforGeographicDiscoveryTheRenaissancecoincidedwiththeAgeofExplorationinEuropeanhistory.TheAgeofDiscovery,alongwithitscontemporaryRenaissancemovement,canbeseenasabridgebetweentheMiddleAgesandtheModernera,triggeringtheearlymodernperiodandtheriseofEuropeannation-states.Therearemanyreasonsforit:1)