兽医专业英语

2026/10/91兽医专业英语

EnglishforStudentsofVeterinaryScience

许道军临床兽医学教研室2026/10/92第一章绪论目的意义课程简介专业英语的特点教材与参考书刊2026/10/93目的意义该课程的教学目的与要求是：学生通过本门课程的学习，达到借助专业词典等工具书来熟练阅读兽医专业英语书刊并掌握兽医专业文献英译汉、汉译英的基本技能。意义：英语是世界上使用最广泛的一种语言。据统计，国外约60%的科技文献是用英语发表的，英语为一种国际科技交流的主导语言；(世界科技文献中：英文60％，德文11％，俄文11％，法文7％，日文3％，西班牙文2％，其他6％)2026/10/942026/10/952026/10/96课程简介兽医专业英语是为动物医学专业本科生开设的一门选修课;共28学时，其中讲授26学时，考查2学时;主要内容：科技英语的基本特点、构词法概述

基础兽医学(BASICVETERINARYSCIENCE)预防兽医学(PREVENTIVEVETERINARYSCIENCE)临床兽医学(CLINICALVETERINARYSCIENCE)兽医专业论文英文摘要的撰写

2026/10/97专业英语的特点专业词汇使用频率高;专业词汇的意义比较专一，且词越长，词义越专一：Phosphodihydroxyacetone磷酸二羟丙酮2026/10/98专业英语的特点专业词汇词汇具有国际性。据有关统计，70%以上的科技英语词汇来自拉丁语、希腊语。绝大多数医学、兽医学词汇源于拉丁语、希腊语。多使用正式规范的书面动词来替代具有同样意义的口语化的动词或动词短语：如用observe来代替lookat,用examine代替check等

。e.g.,PCRampliconswereexaminedbyagarosegelelectrophoresis广泛使用缩略语，如：rpm:revolutionsperminute;RBC:redbloodcellcount/redbloodcorpuscle(cell)ATP:adenosinetriphosphateELISA:enzyme-linkedimmunosorbentassay2026/10/99科技英语的特点大量使用派生词：添加前、后缀构成新词，由semi-(拉丁)和auto-(希腊)构成的科技词汇就有近500个。e.g.autoblood(自体血液),autotoxicosis(自体中毒);semicoma（半昏迷),semiantigen（半抗原);2026/10/910科技英语的特点句法大量使用被动语态。科技英语使用被动语态可以使描述减少主观色彩，增强客观性，而且通过隐去人称主语而使句子尽可能简洁。e.g.,AdultwormsofAscaris（蛔虫)wereobtainedfromhumanpatientsaftertreatmentwithanthelmintics（打虫药),orfrompigsatnecropsy（尸检)Thesecondinternaltranscribedspacer(ITS-2)wasamplifiedfromnematode（线虫类)genomicDNAbyPCR.DNA:DeoxyribonucleicacidPCR:PolymeraseChainReaction2026/10/911科技英语的特点常用包含两个及两个以上从句的长句。Apreviousstudy(Palmetal.1998)hasindicatedthatmostparasitespeciesoftheAntarcticfish,Notothenia

coriiceps,appeartobebroadlydistributedwithinAntarcticwaters,whichwouldcorrespondtoalowhostspecificityinhigherlatitudes.大量使用非谓语动词短语及分词短语。

Thesemethodsshouldprovidevaluabletoolsforstudyingthelife-cycleandtransmissionpattern(s)ofthisparasite.2026/10/912科技英语的特点大量使用名词或名词短语。

InfectionofhumanswithnematodesofthegenusAscaris（蛔虫)isofmajorpublichealthimportanceinarangeofcountriesandaffectsmillionsofpeople.大量使用形容词做后置定语。

Soilrichinmineralsissaidtobefertile.用It作形式主语，替代后面作真正主语的从句或动词不定式短语。

Itiswellrecognisedthatanisakids(粗尾猿)ofsomegenera（类

、属)aretransmissibletohumans,wheretheycancausesignificantclinicaldiseases.Itisimportanttounderstandthelifecyclesofparasiticnematodes（线虫类).2026/10/913科技英语的特点修辞修辞手法较少:科技英语不像普通英语那样具有感性形象思维，不具感情色彩，其目的是使读者容易理解而不产生太多的想象。也不经常运用比喻、排比、夸张等修辞手段，而是要准确表达客观规律，按逻辑思维清晰地描述问题。Forexample,nematodeeggsdiffersignificantlyinsizeandshape.2026/10/914科技英语的特点科技英语主要是一种书面语言，它要求严谨、简洁，不要求在文中堆积华丽的词藻，也不要求考虑朗读和吟诵。Thesimpler,thebetter!时态应用有限:常用三种，即现在、过去、将来。

2026/10/915学习专业英语的方法不能急于求成,要有打持久战的准备具备较好的专业基础知识熟练掌握专业词汇的构词法掌握好专业词干了解科技英语的基本特征2026/10/916教材与参考书刊教

材《兽医专业英语》(EnglishforStudentsofVeterinaryScience)，朱兴全主编.参考书刊畜牧兽医专业英语学习.张家骅，田文儒主编.病理学.彭杰青编译.药理学.方达超编译.外文期刊

2026/10/917WhatisaVeterinarian?DoctorsofVeterinaryMedicinearemedicalprofessionalswhoseprimaryresponsibilityisprotectingthehealthandwelfareofanimalsandpeople.Veterinariansdiagnoseandcontrolanimaldiseases,treatsickandinjuredanimals,preventthetransmissionofanimaldiseases("zoonoses，译：人畜共患疾病”)topeople,andadviseownersonpropercareofpetsandlivestock.Theyensureasafefoodsupplybymaintainingthehealthoffoodanimals.Veterinariansarealsoinvolvedinwildlifepreservationandconservationandpublichealthofthehumanpopulation.2026/10/918Todaymorethan79,500veterinariansareprofessionallyactiveintheUnitedStates.Theyprovideawidevarietyofservicesinprivateclinicalpractice,teaching,research,governmentservice,publichealth,militaryservice,privateindustry,andotherareas.2026/10/919RolesofVeterinariansinHumanandAnimalHealthPublichealthandfoodsafetyFoodsafetyBiosecurityAnimalhealthandwelfareFood-producinganimalsAquaculture(水产业)CompanionanimalsLaboratoryanimalsWildlifeandconversationComparativemedicineAnimalmodelingEmergingissuesEmerginginfectiousdiseasesEcosystemhealthSocialpolicies,societalneedsandexpectationExotic(珍奇的)andcagedpetmedicine2026/10/920VETERINARIAN‘SOATH(誓言)

Beingadmittedtotheprofessionofveterinarymedicine,Isolemnlysweartousemyscientificknowledgeandskillsforthebenefitofsocietythroughtheprotectionofanimalhealth,thereliefofanimalsuffering,theconservationofanimalresources,thepromotionofpublichealth,andtheadvancementofmedicalknowledge.（

我在即将从事兽医职业之际庄重地宣誓，要用我所掌握的科学知识和技能为社会谋利，保护动物健康，解除动物疾苦，保护动物资源，促进公共卫生，提高医学知识水平。)Iwillpracticemyprofessionconscientiously,withdignity,andinkeepingwiththeprinciplesofveterinarymedicalethics.（

我将以崇高的品格忠诚我的职业，遵守兽医道德规范。)Iacceptasalifelongobligationthecontinualimprovementofmyprofessionalknowledgeandcompetence.（

作为终生的职责，我愿不断地提高自己的专业知识和能力。)2026/10/921CurrentstatusofsexingmammalianspermatozoaThousandsofoffspringhavenowbeenproducedviaartificialinseminationwithspermatozoasexedbyflowcytometryandcellsorting.Weareunawareofanyotherpracticalapproachtosexingspermatozoathatmaintainsfertility.Accuracyofsexingusuallyis85–95%inmostspecies,butsomewhatlowerwithhumanspermatozoa.Spermatozoaaresexedinseries,oneatatime,atroutineratesofabout3000livespermatozoaofeachsexpersecondformostspecies,andnearlytwicethatrateunderoptimalconditionsforsomespecies.2026/10/922

Owingtovariousconstraintsandstatisticalconsiderations,thereappearstobeanuppertheoreticallimittosexingspermatozoaofabout10000livespermatozoaofeachsexpersecondwithcurrentmethodology.

2026/10/923Aboutaquarterofthespermatozoaprocessedaresexed;therestarediscardedintheprocessorlostduetologisticalconstraints.Spermatozoaundergosomedamageduringsorting,althoughmuchlessintermsofviabilitythanwithroutinecryopreservation（低温冷冻);fertilityislowerwithsexedthancontrolspermatozoa.Offspringfromsexedspermatozoaappeartohavenomoreabnormalitiesthandocontrols,andbothgroupsgrowandthrive（健康生长)similarly.2026/10/924Despitehighcostsandcomplexprocedures,sexingspermatozoa,usuallyfollowedbycryopreservation,isbeingusedcommerciallyforcattleandhorseproductioninseveralcountries,andisusedtoproducegirlstoavoidX-chromosome-linkedgeneticdiseases.（Reproduction(2002)124,733–743)2026/10/925兽医专业英语构词法概述

一个英语单词通常可以分为三个部分：词根（stem)，前缀（prefix)及后缀（suffix)。

对科技英语名词的构造、含义的深刻理解有助于熟悉专业单词，从而提高专业英语的词汇量和阅读能力。

英语中常见的前缀有：un-、in-、im-、

mis-

、

dis-、anti-、de-、

under-、re-、over-、semi-

、equi-

、

mini-、

micro-

、

macro-、

inter-、

super-、

ex-

、

extra-

、

sub-

、

peri-等等2026/10/926常见的一些后缀如:-an-ain如:American,historian-ize,ise如:modernize,mechanize-ology如:biology,zoology-able如:movable,comfortable,-ish如:boyish,childish-ly如:possibly等等2026/10/927兽医专业英语单词中,其构词与公共英语类似,但是其构词多侧重于专业词汇。2026/10/928如：cyto-(细胞……)Cytoactive

细胞活性cytoanalyzer细胞分析器cytoarchitectonics细胞结构(学)cytobiology细胞生物学cytoblast细胞核cytoblastema细胞形成质cytocentrum中心体cytochemical细胞化学的cytochimera细胞嵌合体cytochondria线粒体2026/10/929cytochrome细胞色素cytochrome

oxidase细胞色素氧化酶cytocide杀细胞剂cytoclasis细胞坏死Cytocyst胞囊cytoderm细胞壁cytodesma细胞(间)桥cytodiaeresis胞体分裂cytodifferentiation细胞分化cytoecology细胞生态学2026/10/930cytofertilizin细胞受精素cytofibril胞质原纤维cytogene胞质基因cytogenesis细胞发生,细胞生成cytogeneticmap细胞遗传学图cytogenetics细胞遗传学cytoglobin细胞球蛋白cytogony细胞性生[繁]殖cytohistogenesis细胞(组织)发生cytohistology细胞组织学2026/10/931cytoid似细胞的,细胞状的cytokinetic细胞动力学的cytokinetics细胞动力学cytologicdiagnosis细胞学诊断cytolymph细胞液,细胞浆cytolysis细胞溶解cytoma细胞瘤cytomegalic巨细胞的cytomegalovirus细胞巨化病毒cytomembrane细胞膜2026/10/932cytometaplasia细胞变异cytometer血细胞计数器cytomorphology细胞形态学cytomorphosis细胞形成Cytomycin胞霉素cytonecrosis细胞坏死cytopathic细胞病的cytopathiceffect细胞病理效应cytopathology细胞病理学cytophagy细胞吞噬作用2026/10/933cytophotometer细胞光度计cytophysics细胞物理学cytophysiology细胞生理学cytoplasm细胞质cytoplasmiccycle胞质周期cytotherapy细胞疗法再如：－genesis(发生、起源)cytogenesis细胞发生Spermiogenesis精子形成

等等2026/10/934对于兽医专业英语的单词学习要靠平时的逐步积累，在阅读专业英语文献时有意识的依靠构词法来进行记忆可以提高效率。同时在专业英语中，还有很多词是由几个单词固定搭配而成的，共同构成一个专业词汇（其相当于中文的一个专业名词)如：cardiac（心脏的)cardiacactivity心搏[动]cardiacatrophy心(脏)萎缩cardiacefficiency心效率,心力cardiachypertrophy心脏肥大cardiacindex心脏(输出)指数2026/10/935CHAPTERTWOLessonFourMuscleAuniquecharacteristicofmusclecellsisthepresenceofasubstructureofmyofilaments（肌丝)thatprovidesthemwiththeabilitytocontract.Althoughthearrangementofthemyofilamentsincellsofsmoothmusclediffersfromthatofcellsofskeletalandcardiac（心脏的)muscle,thecontractionprocessisthesame.Thisprocessoccurswhenthefilamentsslidepastoneanotherresultinginashorteningofthecell.2026/10/936myofilaments（肌丝)Myoglia肌胶质细胞Myoglobin肌球素Myoglobinuria肌红蛋白尿myogram[医]肌动(描记)图Myohematin肌细胞色素

等等cardiac（心脏的)cardiant心脏兴奋剂cardiataxia心搏失调cardiatelia心发育不全cardiectomy心部分切除术2026/10/937Smoothmuscleisinvoluntary.Itscellsarelongandtapered（锥型的)andhaveanelongatednucleuslocatedaboutmidwaybetweentheendsofeachcell.Smoothmuscleconsistsofgroupsofthesecellsboundtogetherbyconnectivetissuefibers.Studentsoftenencounterdifficultyindistinguishingsmoothmusclefromthesurroundingconnectivetissue.Itishelpfultoknowthatsmoothmusclepresentsanoveralldull,pinkappearanceinhematoxylin(苏木精)andeosin（伊红)preparations,whilefibersoftheconnectivetissueareconsiderablymoreretractileandappearbrightpinkandshinybycomparison.Smoothmuscleisfoundinavarietyofplaces,forexample,throughoutthedigestivetract,inbloodvessels,intheurinarybladder（膀胱),inthecapsules（腔体)ofsomeorgans,andinbronchi（支气管).2026/10/938bronchi支气管bronchiole细支气管bronchiolitis细支气管炎bronchitis支气管炎bronchography支气管造影(术)bronchoscope气管镜bronchotomy气管切开术2026/10/939Skeletalmuscleisstriated（有条纹的)andvoluntary.Cellsaremultinucleated（多核的)andmaybe3or4cmlong.Cross-striationsresultfromthepreciseregistrationoftheA,I,H,andMbandsofthesarcomeres（肌小节)ofthemyofibrils.Nucleiarelocatedperipherally,immediatelybelowthesarcolemma（肌纤维膜).Individualcellsaregroupedintofascicles（肌束).Eachfascicle,inturn,issurroundedbyaperimysium（肌束膜)oflooseconnectivetissue.2026/10/940Eachcellwithinafascicleiscloselyinvestedbydelicatereticularfibers（网状纤维),theendomysium（肌内膜).Groupsoffasciclesareboundtogetherbyasheathofdenseconnectivetissue（结缔组织),theepimysium（肌外膜).Collagenousfibers（胶原纤维)oftendons（腱)insertintoinvaginations（内陷处)attheendsofthemusclecell,anchoring（锚定)thetendontoanexternallamina（薄层),whichisadherenttothesarcolemma（肌纤维膜).2026/10/941Cardiacmuscleisstriatedandinvoluntary.Itformsthemyocardium（心肌)oftheheartandoccursinthewallsofthemajorvesselscarryingbloodtoandfromtheheart,includingtheaorta（大动脉),pulmonaryartery（肺动脉),pulmonaryvein（肺静脉),andvenacava（腔静脉).Asingle,centrallylocatednucleusoccursinmostcells.Occasionally,however,acellwithtwonucleimaybeseen.Thecell‘scross-striationsresultfromthepreciseregistrationofsarcomeric（肌原纤维肌节)bandsasinskeletalmuscle.Unlikecellsofskeletalorsmoothmuscle,cellsofcardiacmusclebranchandanastomose（吻合)withoneanother.Specialcell-surfacemodificationscalledintercalateddiscs（闰盘)joincellsofcardiacmuscletogetherendtoend.2026/10/942Somecellsofcardiacmusclearemodifiedandfunctionasaconductingsystemthathelpstocoordinatetheheartbeat.Thesemodifiedcellsarethefunctionalelementsofthesinoatrialnode（窦房结),atrioventricularnode（房室结),andthePurkinjefibers（浦肯野氏纤维).Ventricular（心，脑)室的

ventricle室,脑室,心室Ventriculostomy脑室切开术Ventriculopuncture脑室穿刺术Ventriculogram脑室造影照片2026/10/943myofilament[mai

u

fil

m

nt]n.肌丝endomysium[

end

mizi

m]n.肌内膜cardiac[

k

:di

k]a.心脏的sheath[

i:

]n.鞘filament[

fil

m

nt]n.丝collagenous[k

l

d

in

s]a.胶原的,产生胶原的

elongate[

i:l

eit]a.拉长的,延伸的,细长的tendon[

tend

n]n.腱connective[k

n

ktiv]a.连接的,结合的,结蒂的hematoxylin[

hi:m

t

ksilin]n.苏木精invagination[in

v

d

i

nei

n]n.折入,凹入,内陷,套迭eosin[

i:

sin]n.伊红lamina[

l

min

]n.板,层retractile[ri

tr

kt

il]a.可退缩的,可缩回的2026/10/944myocardium[

m

i

u

k

:di

m]n.心肌（层)urinarybladder膀胱aorta[ei

:t

]n.主动脉bronchi[

br

k

i]n.支气管pulmonaryartery肺动脉sarcomere[

s

:k

mi

]n.肌（原纤维)节venacava腔静脉myofibril[

m

i

u

f

ibril]n.肌原纤维anastomose[

n

st

m

uz]vi.vt.(使)吻合peripheral[p

rif

r

l]a.外周的，周围的，末梢的intercalate[in

t

:k

leit]vt.插入sarcolemma[

s

:k

u

lem

]n.肌纤维膜，肉膜sinoatrialnode窦房结perimysium[

peri

misi

m]n.肌束膜atrioventricular[

eitri

uven

trikjul

]a.房室的2026/10/945AdditionalreadingmaterialMuscleMusclecells,likeneurons(神经细胞),canbeexcitedchemically,electrically,andmechanicallytoproduceanactionpotential（动作电位)thatistransmittedalongtheircellmembrane.Theycontaincontractile(有收缩性的)proteinsand,unlikeneurons,theyhaveacontractilemechanismthatisactivatedbytheactionpotential.2026/10/946Muscleisgenerallydividedintothreetypes,skeletal,cardiac,andsmooth,althoughsmoothmuscleisnotahomogeneous（均一的，同类的)singlecategory.Skeletalmusclecomprisesthegreatmassofthesomaticmusculature(肌肉组织).Ithaswell-developedcross-striations,doesnotnormallycontractintheabsenceofnervousstimulation,lacksanatomicandfunctionalconnectionsbetweenindividualmusclefibers,andisgenerallyundervoluntarycontrol.2026/10/947Cardiacmusclealsohascross-striations,butitisfunctionallysyncytial（合胞体的)incharacterandcontractsrhythmically（有节奏)intheabsenceofexternalinnervation(神经分布,神经支配)owingtothepresenceinthemyocardiumofpacemakercells（起搏细胞)thatdischargespontaneously.2026/10/948Smoothmusclelackscross-striations.Thetypefoundinmosthollowviscera（内脏)isfunctionallysyncytial（合胞体的)incharacterandcontainspacemakersthatdischargeirregularly.Thetypefoundintheeyeandinsomeotherlocationsisnotspontaneouslyactiveandresemblesskeletalmuscle.Therearecontractileproteinssimilartothoseinmuscleinmanyothercells,anditappearsthattheseproteinsareresponsibleforcellmotility,mitosis（有丝分裂),andthemovementofvariouscomponentswithincells.注：Miosis(减数分裂)2026/10/949SkeletonTheskeletonisthebasicframeworkoftheanimal.Itgivesitshapeandsize.Theskeletoncarriesandsupportstheweightofthebody.Itprotectssomeorgansfromexternaldamage,e.gribs（肋骨)protecttheheartandlungsandskull(头骨)protectsthebrain.Newbloodcellsdevelopinthemarrowofsomebones.Jointsbetweenbonesallowtheanimaltomove.Thebonescontainreserves（储备)ofsomeelementswhichtheanimalcanmobilize（动员)whentheyareneededbythebody.2026/10/950Theskeletondevelopsintheunbornanimalfromcartilage(软骨)whichhardensaschemicalsaltsaredepositedinit.Intheagedanimaltheamountofmineralintheboneincreases.Thismakesthebonesbrittle.Bonesgrowinbothlengthandthickness.Thebonesoftheskeletondonotdevelopatthesamerateinthegrowinganimal.Theproportionofonebonetothewholeoftheskeletonchangesastheanimalgrows.Theskullandhindlimbs(后肢)ofanew-bornlambformahighpercentageoftheskeletonbutthisdecreasesasthelamb(羔羊)grows.Hindlimbsdevelopfasterthanforelimbs.2026/10/951Animalbreedersbycarefulselectioncanchangetheshapeandsizeoftheskeletonandthustheanimal.Sometimesthechangesproduceweaknessintheskeleton.Verylongpigscansufferfrombacktroubles.Movementdependsonthejointsbetweenthebonestomoveundermuscleaction.Jointsfallintothreecategories:slidingjoints;Hinged（铰链)joints;ball-and-socket（球窝)joints.2026/10/952Slidingjoints.Inthesejointsthetwoboneendsthatformthejointaresmoothandslightlycurved.Theyareabletoslideovereachotherallowingmovement.Thebonesareheldtogetherbyligaments(系带,韧带)attachedtotheoutermembraneofthetwobones.Hingedjoints.Thebonesformingthejointhaveenlargedsurfaceareasthatkeyintoeachother.Thisformsstrongjoint,butlimitsmovementinthejointtooneplane.2026/10/953Ball-and-socketjoints.Theseverystrongjointshavelargesurfaceareasofcontactwhichspreadstheweightputonthejoint.Movementislimited(rotarywithsomesidewaysmovement)Thejointsoftheskeletonneedoilingtoreducewear(磨损).Wherethebonesmeet,theyarecoveredwithapackofcartilage(软骨)whichactsasashockabsorberandprovidesawear-resistantsurface.Overthecartilageisamembranewhichproducesafluidtolubricate(润滑)thejoint.Movementinjointsiscausedbythecontractionandexpansionofmusclesassociatedwiththatjoint.2026/10/954LessonFiveSkin

Theskincoversthebodyandprotectsitagainstinjury;itplaysanimportantpartintemperaturecontrolandenablestheanimaltorespondtovariousexternalstimulibyvirtueofitsmanynerveendings.Therearenumerouslocalmodificationsofskin,butatpresentweareconcernedonlywithitsmoregeneralproperties.2026/10/955Theskinvariesgreatlyinthicknessandflexibility,bothamongspeciesandlocally.Itisnaturallythickerinlargeranimals(thoughnotinconstantproportiontotheirsize)andinmoreexposedareas;theseinequalitiesareobviouslyimportanttothesurgeon.Althoughtheskinisgenerallycloselymoldedtotheunderlyingstructures,itappearsredundantinsomeareas,formingfoldsandcreases（皱褶);somefoldingallowsforchangeinposture,someisanadaptationtoincreasetheareathroughwhichheatmaybedissipated（消散的)totheenvironment.2026/10/956Skinconsistsoftwolayers,anouterepidermisandaninnerdermis,andinmostsituationsitrestsonalooserconnectivetissuevariouslyknownasthesubcutis(皮下组织),hypodermis(皮下组织),orsuperficialfascia（浅筋膜).Theepidermisisastratified（分层的)squamousepithelium（鳞状上皮细胞)whosethicknessisadaptedtothetreatmentitreceives;itrespondsquicklytoroughusage,asexemplifiedbytheappearanceofcalluses（老茧)onthehumanpalmsandsoles.Numerousmodificationsofthislayerexist,themostcommonbeingtheoccurrenceofsweatandsebaceousglands（皮脂腺)andofhair.2026/10/957Sweatglandsaremostimportantasaprovisionforheatlossbysurfaceevaporationbutalsoplayasubsidiaryroleintheexcretionofwaste.Thesebaceousglandsproduceanoilysecretionthatwaterproofsthesurfaceandprovidescertainrelativelynakedareas,suchasthegroin（腹股沟,)ofhorses,withacharacteristicsheen（光辉).Bothtypesofglandareusuallywidely,thoughnotubiquitously,spread.Thehaircoat,whichisauniquelymammalianfeature,isamechanicalprotectionandathermalinsulator,thelatterpropertydependingontheentrapmentofairinthepile.Thehaircoatisusuallywidespread.Amongthemorefamiliarspecies,onlythehumanandthepigarerelativelynaked,althoughnakedindividualsmayappearinotherspeciesasoccasional"sports",theorigin,forexample,oftheSphynxbreedofcat.2026/10/958Thedermis,whichconsistsessentiallyoffelted（黏结起来的)connectivetissuefibers,istherawmaterialofleather.Inmostsituations,theskinmoveseasilyovertheunderlyingtissues,andthisloosenessfacilitatestheflayingofacarcass（尸体剥皮).Someriskofpressureinjuryispresentwherethedermisismolded（与...轮廓相符合)overbonyprominences,andsynovialbursae（滑液囊)oftendevelopadventitiously（外来的，额外的)insuchsites.Unliketheepidermis,thedermisiswellsuppliedwithbloodvesselsandcutaneousnerves（皮肤神经).2026/10/959dermis[

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上皮,上皮细胞2026/10/960MainDifferencesBetweenAvianandMammalianRespiratorySystemsTheavian(鸟类)respiratorysystemdiffersfundamentallyfromthatofthemammal.Inthemammalthebodycavityisdividedbyapowerfulmusculardiaphragm(横隔膜),intothorax（胸,胸膛,胸腔)andabdomenwhichallowcompletelyoppositepressureregimes(系统)throughouttherespiratorycycle.Inthebirdthereisnothingevenremotelycomparabletothemammaliandiaphragmand,inspiteoftheexistenceofvarioussepta（隔片,septum的复数形式),thepressurethroughoutthewholeofthebodycavityisthesameatanygiveninstant.Ofcoursethispressurechangeswiththerespiratorycyclebutdoessouniformlythroughoutthebodycavityasawhole.2026/10/961Oninspirationairentersthemammalianlungtofillmillionsofexpandedblindendingalveoli(气泡),andduringexpiration(呼气),largelybytheelasticrecoil(弹回)ofthelung,stale(不新鲜的)airleavesthesystem.Aconsiderableamountofdeadspaceisaninevitableresultofthismechanism.Inspirationinthebirdresultsinfreshairbeingdrawnintotherelativelyindistensible(distensible

可扩张的)lungandalsorightthroughitintolargebellows-like(风箱)containers,theairsacs(囊).ExpirationInspirationrespiratory2026/10/962Duringexpirationthisreserveoffreshairispumpedbackthroughthelungfollowingthesameroutetakenbythefreshairduringinspiration.Thereisthusanalmostcontinuousstreamoffreshairflowingthroughthelungofthebird,inthesamedirectionduringbothphasesofrespirationandasaresultdeadspace(死舱位)isvirtually(事实上,实质上)eliminated.Clearlythisisverydifferentfromthemammal.2026/10/963LessonSixTheHistologyofChichen’sDigestiveSystem

Inthechickenthesalivaryglands（唾液腺)areallofthemucous(黏液的)variety(多样性).Theyarelocatedintheroofandflooroftheoralcavity,tongue,andpharynx(咽).Tastebudsarepresentbutsparse（稀少).Theyareassociatedwiththeductsofsalivaryglandsatthebaseofthetongueandthepharynx.2026/10/964Theesophagus(食道)hastheusualsevenlayers.Itislinedbyathick,nonkeratinized(keratinize使角质化,角质化),stratifiedsquamousepithelium（分层的鳞状上皮).Themuscularisexternaiscomposedofsmoothmusclealongtheentirelengthoftheesophagus.Mucousglandsoccurinthelaminapropria（固有层),butarelackingthroughoutmostofthecrop(嗉囊),whichisacaudal(尾部的)diverticulum(憩室)locatedapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthewaydowntheesophagus.Thecrophasastructureidenticaltotherestoftheesophagus,butitlacksmucousglands.2026/10/9651111Thestomachofthechickenconsistsofaglandularproventriculus(腺体质的前胃)andamuscularventriculus(肌肉质的胃).Themucosa(黏膜)oftheproventriculusisthrownintofolds(皱褶).Depressionsbetweenthefoldsarecalledsulci(沟).Theepitheliumissimplecolumnar（柱型的)exceptatthebaseofthesulci,whereitiscuboidal（立方型).Thewalloftheproventriculusconsistsoflarge,compound,tubularglands（管状腺体).Thesecretorycells,whicharecuboidaltolowcolumnar,producebothpepsinogen(胃蛋白酶原)andhydrochloricacid,thuscombiningthefunctionofmammalianchiefandparietal(体壁的,腔壁的)cells.Eachglandopenstothelumen(内腔)ofthestomachthroughaconical(圆锥的,圆锥形的)papilla(乳头,小乳头状突起).2026/10/966Theventriculus（室、胃)isahighlymusculargrinding（碾磨)organ.Itislinedbyanepitheliumthatinvaginates(收进鞘中,套进内部)intothelaminapropria（固有层),formingelongatedpits(凹陷),eachofwhichbearsterminaltubulargastricglands（胃腺).Cellsofthelattersecreteathick,horny(角状的)material.Althoughkeratinlike（角蛋白),thissubstance,usuallycalledkeratinoid（角衣片),isnotchemicallyequivalenttokeratin(角蛋白).Itformsthetoughinnerlining（内衬),about1mmthick,oftheventriculus.2026/10/967Theintestineofthechickenissimilarinstructurethroughoutitslength.Itconsistsofaduodenum(十二指肠),jejunum(空肠),ileum(回肠),andlargeintestine.Apairofblind,elongatedceca(盲肠)jointheintestineatthejunctionoftheileumandlargeintestine.Theterminalendofthelargeintestinejoinsthecoprodeum（排粪道)ofthecloaca（泄殖腔).Villi（绒毛)arepresentthroughoutthesmallandlargeintestines.Theyarelongestintheduodenum,butgraduallyshortenandthickencaudally(尾部地).2026/10/968Inthecoprodeum（排粪道)theyarestumpy(粗短的，矮胖的)androunded.Villiarepresentinthececa(盲肠)also,becomingflattenedtowardtheblindend.Crypts（隐窝)ofLieberkuhnareshortandopenbetweenthevilli,asinmammals.Althoughthewalloftheintestineofthechickenissimilartothatofthemammal,theabsenceofduodenalglands（十二指肠腺)andanextremelythinsubmucosa（黏膜下层)inthechickenarenotabledifferences.2026/10/969Asinmammals,theliveriscoveredbyamesothelium（间皮)beneathwhichisalayerofconnectivetissue,Glisson‘scapsule（肝纤维囊).Lobes（叶)oftheliveraresubdivided(再分,细分)intonumerouslobules(小裂片,小叶)indistinctlyseparatedfromoneanother.Theradiatingplates（辐射板)ofhepatocytesineachlobulearetwocellswideinthechicken.Incontrast,thoseofmammalsareonecellwide.mesothelium（间皮)epithelium（上皮)endothelium