城市认知地图

1、文Harry P. Bahrick,THE COGNITIVE MAP OF A CITY: FIFTY YEARS OF LEARNING AND MEMORY 城市认知地图：50年的学习和记忆,郑晓虹,一个城市的认知地图,What is cognitive map?,1,波士顿市民公共意图,洛杉矶市民公共意图,泽西市民公共意图,三、认知地图的性质 认知地图是“头脑中的环境”，因此可称之为“心理地图”、“环境意象”。 如何形成认知地图，环境心理学家持有两种不同的观点模拟观点和命题观点。 模拟观点认知地图是真实环境在记忆中的复制品，它与物质环境大致上一点点相互对应，似乎是一幅贮存在头脑中的环境

2、的图像，因此称之为“心理图像”或环境的“表象”。 命题观点更加强调通过对信息赋予意义加以贮存。也就是说，客观环境被再现为很多相互联系的概念，每一种概念都会引起许多联想，如颜色、名称、相应的声音、高度等，人们借助于这种命题网从记忆中寻找有关的各种联想，并由所画的草图体现出来。 后续研究倾向将两种观点结合,认知地图的特点 (一)多维信息的综合再现 （持久性和稳定性） (二)模糊性和片断性 (三)个人差异 1当地居民与外来者 2活动区域 3性别差异 4年龄差异 5人格化地图,认知地图的功能 (一)解决空间问题 (二)接受新环境信息的基础 (三)交往功能,走进亨利的认知地图世界,How does th

3、e cognitive map work?,2,cognitive map认知地图,The study of space perception has a long history in philosophy and psychology,but empirical work has only recently been extended from the microspace of the laboratory to the macrospace in which people live. Tolman (1948) first used the term “cognitive map” i

4、n an important paper in which he discussed how rats find their way in a maze. 空间认知研究在哲学和心理学中有很长的历史，但实证研究是最近才从实验室空间扩展到围观空间在其中的人 生活。托尔曼（1948）在一篇重要的论文中，他讨论了鼠在迷宫中找到出路的方式，并且用了“认知地图”的概念。,托尔曼一生研究行为心理学，他的理论揉合了当时众多心理学理论，在其过世后他的理论和研究方法更促成了20世纪50年代末期的心理学“认知革命”。 他提出整体行为模式和中介变量的概念，弥补华生古典行为主义的缺陷，同时他建构了符号理论，是认知心理学

5、的先驱。 代表作品 动物与人的目的性行为。,托尔曼的实验之一所用的装置如下图所示，实验开始时，白鼠被置于起点处，食物放在其中一条通路的一端。白鼠从起点至食物放置处为一次尝试。托尔曼在实验中发现，若干次尝试之后，白鼠从起点到达食物处的速度明显提高，结果如右图所示。,认知地图（或认知图）是托尔曼符号学习理论中的一个重要概念。指在过去经验的基础上产生于头脑中的某些类似于一张现场地图的模型。托尔曼把白鼠学习迷津的行为看作是认知学习，认为白鼠学到食物所在方位，并非只是机械式的左转右转的活动联结在一起，而是它走过之后，把迷津通路中某些特征（行动方向、到达目的的距离及其之间的关系）做为符号标志，并通过对符号

6、之间关系（手段目的关系）辨别，获得迷津通路的整体概念，形成一个认知地图。,ecologically oriented research 空间导向研究,Since then the cognitive maps of children and adults have become a topic of increasing interest to geographers, architects, urban planners, sociologists, and others, but these scholars looked in vain to the psychological lite

7、rature for information about the process by which such maps get into peoples heads. 自那时以来，关于儿童和成人的认知地图如何进入人们的大脑已经成为一个重要的话题，地理学家、建筑师、城市规划师、社会学家和其他人都对此开始进行大量的研究。,The pioneer work of Lynch (1960) emphasized the need for more ecologically oriented research, and during the last 20 years investigators hav

8、e responded to this need with a spate of studies of environmental space perception. This literature has been ably reviewed by Evans (1980) and Siege1 and White (1975). Psychologists were slow to respond to this need because learning about ecological space is an extended process that does not lend it

9、self readily to the type of controls deemed essential for scientific study. The recent impetus to ecological research reflects new and broader criteria for evaluating scientific contributions and a growing acceptance of some sacrifices of controls in a tradeoff which encourages the investigation of

10、important problems that can only be studied in an ecological setting (Bahrick 63 were freshman tested during the eighth month of residence; 64 were sophomores tested during the 17th month of residence; 53 were juniors tested during the 26th month of residence; and 44 were seniors tested during the 3

11、5th month of residence. Five hundred seventy-six were alumni of Ohio Wesleyan University who attended the college between 1929 and 1979 and were tested to obtain data concerning retention of knowledge. The alumni were assigned to one of 8 groups based upon their date of graduation. Table I shows the

12、 number of years intervening between graduation and the time of testing, and specifies various subject characteristics. Freshmen and sophomores were recruited from introductory psychology classes on the basis of a course requirement. Juniors and seniors were recruited from advanced undergraduate psy

13、chology courses and from sororities and fraternities. Most junior and senior students were paid for participating in the study. 八百五十一个人（359名男性，492名女性）参加了调查。其中，275名俄亥俄卫斯理大学的本科生，谁进行了测试，以获得数据公司 有机地交叉融合认知地图的采集。51在第四周这些新生居住的测试；63是新生居住的第八个月期间进行测试；64是大二测试居住第十七个月时；53是学生居住的第二十六个月期间进行测试；44的老年人居住在第三十五个月的测试。五百七

14、十六例俄亥俄卫斯理大学的校友谁参加了在1929和1979年之间的学习，并进行了测试，以获得关于保留知识的数据。校友被分配到8组之一的基础上 在他们的毕业日期。表我显示了多少年之间的介入毕业和测试时间，并指定不同的主题特征。一、二年级学生进行局部它从心理学入门课程的课程要求的基础上。高年级是先进的本科心理学课程和联谊会和联谊会招募。 大多数初中生和高中生都参加了学习。,Later comparisons revealed no significant effects on performance due to the type of incentive offered for participa

15、tion. Recruiting of alumni subjects turned out to be much more difficult. All alumni subjects were unpaid volunteers. Some were tested on campus on the occasion of a visit, others were tested at alumni meetings conducted in other cities, and still others self-administered the tests in their home and

16、 returned the completed test by mail to the investigator. The place of test administration and the presence or absence of a test administrator constitute potentially significant procedural variables. 后来的比较显示，没有显着的影响，由于参与的激励类型的性能。校友会的招募被证明是更困难的。所有校友受试者是无偿的志愿者。一些被测试的校园在访问之际，其他人在校友会在其他城市进行了测试，还有一些自我测试在

17、他们的家，并通过邮寄给调查人员完成了测试。测试管理和测试人员的存在或不存在的地方构成潜在的重要程序 几个变量。,It turns out that being tested in Delaware significantly improved performance. The effect was dealt with by assigning those subjects tested on campus the extreme score (0) on the variable specifying the interval since the most recent visit to D

18、elaware prior to taking the test. The variable of recency of visit was included in the multiple regression analysis described in more detail later. The decision to have subjects administer their own tests involves other considerations. 事实证明，正在测试在特拉华显着提高性能。通过分配这些受试者在校园内的极端得分（0）上的变量指定的效果进行了处理 他间隔自最近访问

19、特拉华之前采取的测试。近因访问变量的更详细的描述后，多元回归分析。分 有人来管理自己的试验涉及的其他因素。,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,These alumni were recruited by mail, and problems of sampling bias will be considered first. Sampling error could result from the selection of alu

20、mni who were asked to be subjects, from the fact that not all of those who were asked agreed to serve, and from the fact that some of those who agreed to serve failed to return their completed tests. It is therefore possible that the respondents were not a representative sample of alumni and that th

21、eir performance may not be typical. Although some sampling bias is almost certainly present, several considerations suggest that the effects are minor. Solicitations were extended to all alumni who had majored in psychology and whose addresses were available. 这些校友是通过邮件招募的，而抽样偏差的问题将首先考虑。抽样误差可能会导致从选择的

22、校友被要求是受试者，从事实并不是所有的人都同意服务，并从一个事实，即一些同意服务的人没有返回他们完成的测试。因此，有可能的受访者没有 一个有代表性的校友样本，他们的表现可能不是典型的。虽然一些抽样偏差几乎肯定存在，几方面的考虑表明，影响是次要的。所以本次测试采用的数据是所有的寄件地址可用的校友。 邮件的可获得性,In addition, invitations were extended to a large number of alumni who had taken a course in psychology from the investigator. Most often this

23、was an introductory course elected by approximately 90% of students at the college. Of those who were asked 81 070 agreed to serve, and 84% of those who agreed ultimately returned the completed self-administered tests. Among those 19% who failed to answer the original request were many who did so fo

24、r reasons that are probably uncorrelated with test performance, for example, they were abroad or they had moved without leaving a forwarding address. Failure to return tests that were mailed (16%) constitutes a more serious selection problem, because of the likelihood that at least some of these alu

25、mni attempted the test, but found it too difficult or tiresome to complete. 此外，邀请被扩展到大量的校友谁曾在心理学课程的研究者。最常见的是，这是一个由约90% 选举产生的入门课程学校的学生。那些被要求81%同意服务，和那些同意最终返回完成自填试验84%。在这19%个没有回答的人当中 他最初的要求是许多人这样做的原因，可能与测试性能不相关的，例如，他们在国外或他们已经移动，而不留下一个转发地址。失败 还通过试验（16%）构成了一个更严重的选择问题，因为完成这些测试实在是太痛苦了。 痛苦的测试,The overall e

26、ffect on the data cannot be estimated with precision, but it is probably small. This is so even if the missing data represent a biased subsample, since the overall mean would be weighted more heavily by the 84% for whom data are complete, than by the 16% for whom data are missing. Additional problem

27、s associated with self-administration of tests may have arisen because of failure to follow some of the printed instructions sent with the test. Consulting others about answers or using maps or other sources of information are among the obvious examples. No time limits were set for the tests so that

28、 there are no problems of adherence to such limits, but it is possible that the average time spent with the test is significantly longer for those who administered their own tests, and that this affected the data. 数据的整体效果不能用精确的估计，但它可能是小的。这是即使丢失的数据代表了一种偏见的样本，从总体平均将加权为完整的84%的数据结果。自我管理测试相关的附加问题，因为一些印刷的

29、说明书测试发送。咨询别人关于答案或使用地图或其他信息来源是明显的例子。没有时间限制设置测试，但是它可能对研究成果有重要的影响。 没有考虑到测试时间的影响,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,Alumni subjects were unpaid volunteers whose motivation was primarily a desire to support the research efforts of the investigator. This condition favors compliance with the

30、 directions of the test. The best evidence regarding the aggregate effect of the several sources of bias which have been discussed comes from comparisons of test performance of alumni who were tested by an administrator with performance of those alumni who administered their own tests. Although thes

31、e differences generally favor those who administered their own test, the differences failed to reach statistical significance, and are generally not large enough to cast doubt on or alter the major conclusions of this study. 校友主题是无偿的志愿者，他们的动机主要是一个愿望，以支持研究人员的研究工作。这种情况有利于符合测试的方向。TH 关于已讨论的几个来源的偏见的总效果的最

32、佳证据来自测试性能的比较，由管理员与体育的校友进行了讨论 这些校友管理自己的试验方法。虽然这些差异通常有利于那些管理自己的测试，差异没有达到统计学意义， 一般来说，并没有足够大的怀疑或改变本研究的主要结论。,The previous discussion provides an illustration of problems likely to be encountered in ecologically oriented research involving large numbers of participants. The solutions adopted here represen

33、t compromises with optimum procedures with regard to subject selection and control over test conditions. The acceptability of such compromises is a matter which does not allow facile generalizations. The decisions made here reflect subjective judgments concerning the value of data not obtainable by

34、standard methods, and expectations regarding the magnitude of effects associated with various sources of bias. Such decisions must usually be made without adequateinformation, and penalties for errors in judgment are likely to be severe. The consequences of errors may not be evident until a time whe

35、n much effort and expense have been invested. The option to start over is less attractive than in the case of most laboratory investigations in which mistakes have been made. These considerations must be included in evaluating large scale ecologically oriented research, and they have been discussed

36、elsewhere (Bahrick Blaut the streets categorized as running eastwest were to be ordered from the street farthest north to the street farthest south. 受试者被要求列出他们可以回忆起的特拉华的所有街道名称。然后，他们需要进行分类，每一个上市的街道，无论是在南北方向或东西 方向，并按照正确的顺序安排分配给各类别的街道。从南北街道是街道最西部的命令开始（编号1）的 街道远东；从街道最北面的东西向的街道编号至最南方。,Composition of the

37、Tests试验组成,B. FREER RECALLO F BUILDINGASN D OTHERL ANDMARKS This subtest consisted of two sections. The first section required free recall of names of buildings and landmarks in the city of Delaware; the second section required free recall of the names of buildings and landmarks on the campus of Ohio

38、 Wesleyan University. Each section of the test further required that the recalled items be ordered separately with regard to the north-south dimension and with regard to the east-west dimension. Subjects who listed 10 or fewer responses were required to order all of their responses in both dimension

39、s. Subjects who listed 11-20 responses were required to order only their odd-numbered responses, ignoring the evennumbered responses. Subjects who listed between 21 and 30 responses ordered every third listed response, ignoring the others. The same procedure was applied to both sections of the subte

40、st. We chose the technique of two-dimensional spatial ordering of locations and streets and sacrificed direct distance estimation because preliminary data indicated that the ordinal sequences obtained were more reliable than distance estimates, and yet correlated highly with distance estimates. This

41、 finding probably applies only when distances are relatively small, and can be inferred from the number of city blocks separating locations. Our findings also agree with those of Baird, Merrill, and Tannenbaum (1979), who report that either pairwise judgment or direct mapping yield accurate represen

42、tations of spatial relations in a familiar environment.,B.自由回忆建筑和其他地表建筑 这个测试包括两部分。第一部分要求在特拉华市的建筑和地标名称自由回忆；第二部分所需的建筑物名称自由回忆 在俄亥俄卫斯理大学校园里的钟声和地标。测试的每一部分进一步要求的项目分别标注与南北向的和与东西向度。列出了10个或更少的反应，要求他们在这两个维度中的所有的反应。谁列出11-20反应的受试者被要求提供二只有奇数的反应，忽略了偶数反应。受试者列在21和30之间的反应命令每第三个列出的响应，忽略了其他。同样的程序 应用于分测验两部分。我们选择的地点和街道的

43、二维空间排序技术和牺牲的直接距离估计因为初步数据显示 技术，得到有序序列比距离的估计更可靠，但高度相关的距离估计。这一发现可能仅适用于距离较 小，可以推断出数量的城市块分隔位置。 我们的研究结果与贝尔德、美林也同意，和坦嫩鲍姆（1979），谁报告，两两判断或直接映射在一个熟悉的空间关系得到准确的相似环境。,Composition of the Tests试验组成,C. VISUALLYC UEDR ECALL Subjects were provided the outline map of the city of Delaware shown in Fig. 1. The map ident

44、ifies streets by letters, and buildings and landmarks by numbers. Subjects were instructed to write down the names of any streets or buildings that they were able to recall with the help of the visual cues provided by the map. Subjects were encouraged to guess if necessary, and to recall in any orde

45、r. They were also told that only buildings and places which had existed since 1930 were included on the map. 视觉线索回忆 受试者提供了特拉华市的轮廓图如图1所示。该地图通过字母识别街道，建筑物和地标数字。受试者被指示写下T 他在任何街道或建筑物的名字，他们能够记得的帮助下，地图提供的视觉线索。受试者被鼓励猜测是否有必要，并以任何顺序召回。这个 还有人告诉他们，只有1930个地方的建筑和地方被列入地图上。,Composition of the Tests试验组成,D. VERBALL C

46、YUED TEST This test consisted of two sections. The first section provided subjects with an alphabetized sequence of names of 20 Delaware streets. The subjects were instructed to cross out street names that they did not recognize, and to assign the remaining streets either to a category of streets ru

47、nning north-south, or to a category of streets running east-west. Within each category subjects were then required to order the streets as in the test offree recall of street names. Section 2 provided a list of names of 26 buildings and other landmarks in the city and on the Ohio Wesleyan University

48、 campus. Subjects were instructed to cross out names that they failed to recognize, and to order all of the remaining landmarks independently along the two compass dimensions, as in the subtest for free recall of buildings and landmarks. 口头语言线索回忆 这个测试包括两个部分。第一节的主题有一个按字母顺序排列的顺序20特拉华街道名称。受试者被指示要把他们的街道

49、名称 不承认，并指定其余的街道或一类街道运行南北，或到一个类别的街道运行东西。受试者被要求在每个类别 除为街道在街道名称的自由回忆测试。第2节提供了一个名单的26个建筑物和其他标志性建筑在城市和俄亥俄卫斯理大学校园。S方法指示划掉名字，他们没有认识到，并命令所有剩余的地标独立沿两罗盘的尺寸，在自由回忆测验 建筑和地标。,E. MATCHINGT EST Subjects were provided with the outline map shown in Fig. 1 and with an answer sheet that listed the names of all streets

50、identified by letter on the map, and of all landmarks identified by number on the map. The instructions required subjects to place the appropriate letters and numbers from the map next to the name of each street and landmark listed on the answer sheet. Guessing was encouraged. No time limits were im

51、posed for any subtests. Subjects returned the answer sheets and instructions for each subtest before receiving the next subtest. Total testing time varied considerably, but averaged about 55 minutes. 匹配测试 受试者提供的轮廓图如图1所示，并用一个答案表列出了所有街道的名称，通过在地图上的字母确定的名称，以及所有的地标确定的数字 地图。指令要求的主题将适当的字母和数字从地图旁边的每个街道的名称和标

52、志性的答案表上列出的名称。鼓励猜测。 没有时间限制的任何测试的实施。返回对象的答案和各分测验的指令之前接收下一个分测验。总测试时间变化很大，但平均 在大约55分钟。,Composition of the Tests试验组成,F. QUESTIONNAIRES In addition to completing 4 subtests, all subjects completed a questionnaire. A student questionnaire contained questions concerning duration and location of residence in

53、 Delaware, type of transportation used, use of city or campus maps, and other questions concerning conditions which we though might affect the exposure to information about the campus and city. An alumni questionnaire listed additional questions concerning dates and durations of visits to the city d

54、uring the retention interval. The alumni questionnaire is shown in Table 11. 问卷 除了完成4项分测验，所有受试者完成一份问卷调查。学生问卷中关于时间与居住在特拉华的位置问题，类型的交通工具使用，城市或校园地图的使用情况，和其他问题的条件可能会影响到有关的校园和城市的信息。校友问卷添加列出关于在城市滞留的时间间隔，日期和时间的问题，去向。校友问卷表如表11所示。,Composition of the Tests试验组成,Objective scoring was relatively simple for the vi

55、sually and verbally cued subtests as well as the matching test, but somewhat complicated for the subtests of free recall. The matching and cued recall subtests were limited to those aspects of the city which had remained unchanged over a 50-year period, but no such restrictions could easily be appli

56、ed to the free recall of landmarks and buildings. Alumni often listed the names of landmarks which had been renamed, had disappeared, or could not be identified. Extensive research was conducted to develop semiobjective scoring of these responses. Among the sources used to determine the accuracy of

57、names and locations given were old city directories, telephone books, college catalogues, yearbooks, and interviews with archivists and local history buffs. Based on these sources, a composite map was constructed. This map showed the names and locations of all verified landmarks. The map was updated

58、 as previously unlisted responses were verified. An arbitrary system of scoring was used which awarded one-half point for names of landmarks given incompletely or partly correct, for example, “high school” instead of “Hayes High School,” or “park” instead of “Blue Limestone Park. Responses were awar

59、ded one point credit if they were complete and correct. Subscores were calculated for recall of names of streets with north-south orientation, with east-west orientation, and for the total number of buildings and landmarks Recalled. 客观评分中，视觉和口头线索分测验以及匹配试验相对简单，但对自由回忆测验有点复杂。召回的匹配和线索测试是有限的，在50年内保持不变，城市的这些方面，但没有这样的限制，可以很容易地应用到地标建筑自由回忆。城市的地标和道路信息很少有长时间没有改变的 校友经常列出已更名的地标的名字，已经消失，或无法确定。进行了广泛的研究开发次客观体系来反应评分。来源用来确定准确的名称和位置给了老城区的目录、电话本、专科目录、年鉴和档案工作者和当地历史访谈 迷。基于这些来源，构建了一个复合地图。这张地图显示所有验证的地标的名称和位置。图为此前未上市的反应进行了验证更新。一 任意的评分系统，被用来授予一个半点的名字的地标不完全或部分正确的，例如，“高中”，而不是“海因斯高中”，或“公园”在 而不是“蓝