语言学《新编简明英语语言学教程》复习资料

1、Chapter1 Linguistics: the scientific study of language. （定义）General Linguistics:Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech soundsPhonology: sound patterns of languagesMorphology: the form of wordsSyntax: the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Semantics: the mea

2、ning of languagePragmatics: the meaning of language is conducted in the context of languageLangue vs. parole (F. de Saussure) 语言和言语（定义）Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.Competence and performance (Chom

3、sky)语言能力和语言应用（定义）Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationHow is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance? （相似点，不同点）Sim

4、ilar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal users competence, not his performance is too haphazard to be studied.So the task of the linguists should discover and specify rules.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks

5、 at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. （定义）(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)The design features of human language (Charles Hockett in 1960) （定义）Arbitrar

6、iness(任意性): No logical connection between sounds and meanings. （定义）Productivity/Creativity(能产性/创造性): Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. （定义）Duality: Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. （定义）The low

7、er or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)Displacement（定义） Cultural transmissionChapter2 Phonetics（语音学）（定义）Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the wo

8、rlds languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics（发音）auditory phonetics（听觉）acoustic phonetics（声学）Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic tr

9、anscription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Phonetics & phonology：（定义，区别）Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of

10、a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.)Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a lan

11、guage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone（音素）Phoneme（音位）Allophone（音位变体）: （定义）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not

12、necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some dontPhoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called

13、the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素）Suprasegmental features (超切分特征): stress（重音）tone声调）intonation（语调）The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments Chapter3 Morphology（形态学）（定义）Morphology: The part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure

14、Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning.（定义）Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.Free morpheme & bound morpheme（定义，会用，选择）Free morpheme: is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself. Bound morpheme: can

15、 not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form. (One that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, “al” in “national”.) Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemeDerivational morphemes: the morphemes which change the category or g

16、rammatical class of words, e.g. modern-modernize length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexic

17、al meaning, e.g.a) Number: tables apples cars b) Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) Case: John/JohnsRoot（词根）Stem（词干）Base（根基）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “car

18、e” in “carefully”.Stem: A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesirable” in undesirables.Base: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.The difference between root

19、, stem & base Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesired in undesirable) while a root cannot be further analyzed

20、, e.g. desire in undesirable;Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desire in desired;Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;Desirable in undesirable is only a base.Chapter4 Syntax（句法学）（定义）Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences a

21、nd the rules that govern the formation of sentences.（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective

22、 phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head（中心语）- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier（标志成分）- the words on the left side of the headsComplement（补足成分）- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rules:The grammatical mechani

23、sm that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det限定词) + N + (PP)e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual修饰词) + V + (NP)e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg程度词) + A + (PP)very handsome, very pess

24、imistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP)on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationSNP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Chapter5 Semantics（语义学）（定义）Semantics: the stu

25、dy of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究）the naming theory命名论Platothe conceptualist view概念论: Semantic triangle Ogden and RichardsThought/reference concept 思想/指称Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式 Referent (real object)所指Contextualism语境论John FirthBehaviorism Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextuali

26、st viewS: stimulus r: responseJill JackS-rs-R(The small letters r, sspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Spractical events)Sense（意义）and reference（所指/指称）（定义）Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It i

27、s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Synonymy同义现象: The sameness or close similarity of mea

28、ningA. dialectal synonyms方言同义词synonyms used in different regional dialects（美式/英式英语） B. stylistic synonyms文体同义词synonyms differing in style （问题、正式度不同）C. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同同义词（褒贬义）D. collocational synonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）E. semantically different synonyms

29、语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）Antonymy反义词: oppositenessSense relations between sentences1) X is synonymous with Y. X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.2) X is inconsi

30、stent with Y.X: This is my first visit to Beijing.Y: I have been to Beijing twice.3) X entails Y.X: John married a blond heiress.Y: John married a blond.X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included i

31、n Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.4) X presupposes Y. (Y is prerequisite of X.)X: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bikeIf X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6)

32、 X is semantically anomalous*The table has bad intentions.Componential analysis: a way to analyze lexical meaning.Predication analysis: a way to analyze sentence meaning. (British G. Leech).Predication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s)（名词部分） and pre

33、dicate（谓语部分）.Chapter6 Pragmatics（语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semantics

34、 Semantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatic

35、ally, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitationContext: a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such

36、as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc.Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence;utterance meaning: concrete and context-depen

37、dent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; For example, “The bag is heavy” can mean a bag being heavy (sentence meaning);an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;the speaker is declining someones request for help. Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the se

38、ntence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentenceSpeech Act Theory（言语行为理论）J. L. Austin

39、 (1962) Constatives (述事话语) statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;Performatives (行事话语) sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a

40、performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain. Austins new model of speech acts According to Austins new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocution

41、ary act and perlocutionary act.The locutionary act（言内行为）an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); The illocutionary act（言外行为）an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking

42、). The perlocutionary act（言后行为）an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z. For example, “It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut

43、 the window;Its perlocutionary act can be the hearers shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.-Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account fo

44、r the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:-(the telephone rings)-H: That the phone. (1)-W: Im in the bathroom. (2)-H: Okay. (3) Searles classification of speech acts (1969) Assertives/representatives(阐

45、述类) Directives(指令类) Commissives(承诺类) Expressives(表达类) Declarations(宣布类) Indirect speech act SearlePrinciple of conversation (Paul Grice) Cooperative principle (CP) 会话原则或合作原则（CP原则）Significance重要性: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.它解释了说话人是如何表达字面意义之外的信

46、息Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息）-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话）-Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.-Do n

47、ot make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation关系准则（有相关性）-Be relevant (make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理）-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly.Conversational implicature In real communica

48、tion, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises

49、. Cross-cultural pragmatic failurePragmatic failure: occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speakers utterance in the context of communication补充：音素、音位

50、、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related. A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as u:, l ; A phoneme is a phonological unit, its not a concrete sound but an abstract n

51、otion, its a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme l can be realized as a clear l or a dark l ,depending on where it occurs in a sound combination. The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones,

52、allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.Chapter9Culture:In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. In a

53、narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc. There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters

54、 peoples perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Strong version & weak version Strong version believes that the language patterns determine peoples thinking and behavior;Weak version holds that the former

55、 influence the latter. The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More than in Whorfs days, however, we recognize how important context is i

56、n complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Chapter 10 Language acquisition Language acquisition: refers to the childs acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric Lenneberg argues that

57、 the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time: a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victors and Genies cases)Chapter11Second Language AcquisitionSecond La