语用学预设课件

1、Presupposition预设,1,学习交流PPT,思考： 我们在这句话中可以得到哪些信息？,老师肯定了她的开题报告。,2,学习交流PPT,老师肯定了她的开题报告。 1、“老师”和“她”存在、有所指 2、她写做了开题报告 这两个信息都不是这句话陈述的内容，也不是说话人打算传递给听话人的新信息，而是说话人认定或假定听话人知道的信息，说话人不打算就这个问题与听话人进行探讨。这两个信息是句子预设的。,3,学习交流PPT,大纲,1、背景 2、定义 3、分类 4、属性 5、预设与蕴涵、会话含义区别 6、触发语 7、特点 8、功能,4,学习交流PPT,1. 背景,1.1. 弗雷格的预设说 1.2罗素的摹

2、状词说 1.3斯特劳森的预设理论 1.4. 麦考莱和斯托内克尔的语用预设定义,5,学习交流PPT,1.1. 弗雷格的预设说,Like many other important notions in pragmatics, presupposition has its roots in philosophy. Any discussion of it cannot but mention its philosophical tradition. Gottlob Frege, the first philosopher who brought presupposition to the notic

3、e of the scholarly world, published an article “On Sense and Reference” in 1892. He went on to examine the sense and reference of sentences. 1892年德国哲学家、数学家高特罗伯弗雷格在论意义和指称中提出“预设”这个术语来解释语义中的逻辑现象。,6,学习交流PPT,弗雷格认为:“如果人们陈述某些东西，当然总要有一个假设，即所有的简单的或复杂的专有名称有一个意谓。（If anything is asserted there is always an obvi

4、ous presupposition that the simple or compound proper names used have a reference.）”也就是说，一个句子预设了它所包含的专有名称有所指，即预设了单独名称所表示的对象存在。 例如我们说“小明学习很用功。” 预设为有“小明”这个人存在。,1.1. 弗雷格的预设说,7,学习交流PPT,真假值 一个句子所描述的东西有真有假，而关于一个句子所描写的东西的真假状况我们称为真假值（truth value）。 例如，句子“太阳会发光”，这是真的，所以句子 的真假值为真。而句子“太阳不会发光”的真假值为假。 对于二值逻辑来说，一个

5、逻辑句子（命题）非真即假。而多值逻辑中，真假值并不只有真与假的区分，如真，可能，假或必然真，可能真，可能假，必然假,1.1. 弗雷格的预设说,8,学习交流PPT,(1) Kepler died in misery. (2) There was a man called Kepler. We can infer (2) from (1). (3) Kepler didnt die in misery. (1) 2）语用预设则是广义预设,是主观的、语境性强、动态的,主要研究预设在语言中的各种情况。 但是二者并不互相抵触,是密切联系的。前者是后者的基础,后者是对前者的深化与扩展。,23,学习交流PP

6、T,b、预设分类（依据预设内容） 存在预设：用于陈述某人某事有一定性质的话语。一般都预设讨论对象的存在。 北京市长参加了植树。 事实预设：用于陈述事实的表态性话语，一般都预设讨论对象的事实。 我知道北京是中国的首都。 种类预设：凡是谓词意义可以包含某集合属性的话语，一般都预设所讨论对象属于某种范畴。 这些水果之中苹果是最好吃的。苹果属于水果 性质预设（程度预设）。话语的语义成立对所涉及到的种种对象在性质特征上有一定要求，这种要求就是话语的性质预设。 小王比小李高。高矮程度 信念预设。有些句义的成立必须以某种信念的确认为条件，这就是信念预设。 上帝保佑我们。基督教,24,学习交流PPT,认知研究

7、,认知语言学家如Fillmore(1985)、Fauconnier (1985,1997) 和Lakoff(1987)等纷纷运用认知语言学的理论框架对预设进行了研究,开辟了新的视角,提出了新的观点。 预设的认知解释,认为预设是语言使用者对某个或某些领域里经验的统一和理想化的理解,是由预设触发语(Presupposition triggers)的理想化的认知模型(ICM)激起的概念和知识所构成的一种认知环境,在交际中表现为交际双方互明的共同认知环境(Shared cognitive environment)。,25,学习交流PPT,4、语用预设的属性,不同观点 4.1. 单向性、主观性、隐蔽性

8、（陈新仁，1998）当代语用学 4.2. 共知性、合适性 （何自然，1997） 语用学概论,26,学习交流PPT,4.1.1. 单向性（陈新仁）,所谓单向性是指语用预设是发话人在谈话中自己单方面做出的,并没有与受话人进行协商,这是相对于语用预设本身而言的,是由说话人单方面做出的,在被听话人处理之前,它只相对于说话人而存在。 甲：你觉得塞尔比怎么样？ 乙：塞尔比？ 甲：塞尔比是打台球的你不知道啊？ 听到甲的提问，乙不知所云。因为他从不关注台球，根本就不知道塞尔比为何人。甲的问话中就预设了“乙知道塞尔比这人”，在乙接话之前是单方面的，只有在乙接到话后，乙才推断出甲的预设，这时才是双方的。,27,学

9、习交流PPT,4.1.2. 主观性（陈新仁）,语用预设本身不具备必然的真实性或正确性。有时只是发话人的预设，即只要是发话人所相信的事实可以成为预设，但说话者并不需要真正地认为一些观点是真的，为了交谈的目的，他和他的听众可以接受一个虚假的知识或者一个其真值尚有疑问的命题。 A、B 是恋人，A 说 B “你是猪头。” 我知道他偷了我的橡皮。,28,学习交流PPT,4.1.3. 隐蔽性（陈新仁）,隐蔽性从与语义载体相联系出发，预设并非发话人通过句子的语音形式传达出的在线信息，而是通过话语和语境暗示出来。预设在话语中的隐蔽性有很大的欺骗性，受话人稍不留神，就可能接受发话人隐藏的预设前提。 男：明晚我们

10、在什么地方见面？ 女：还在这里吧。 这一对话中，显然有这么一个预设：“明晚我们要见面。”男方不明问明晚能否再见面，而直接问在何处见面，目的是希望这一预设不言而喻，使对方在不知不觉中接受了邀请。,29,学习交流PPT,4.2.1 共知性（何自然）,共知性指话语的预设对交际双方来说都是共同的背景知识，它可以不在话语表层明言，而隐含在言外。 卡里没钱了。 去北门吃吧。 山科大，餐厅买饭需要使用校园卡，北门有餐馆和小吃。,30,学习交流PPT,4.2.2 合适性（何自然）,合适性指预设所包含的语用意义对双方来说是符合通常的社会规范的，双方也都有能力做到。 母亲对女儿说：“打扫一下房间”。 有房间，双方

11、知哪一个，房间脏了，女儿有能力打扫。,31,学习交流PPT,5.1 预设与会话含义,大部分预设对语句尤其语句中的某些词语依赖性强，有的预设（语义预设）是由言语论断而且也只是由言语论断来确定的，而会话含义则需要借助于对会话原则及其准则的遵守与否辨认，或者需要听话人补充足够的语境信息才能判断。 而且前提与话语关系密切，从逻辑上分析是形成话语的先决条件，但会话含义却不是这样。,32,学习交流PPT,试比较下面两个例题,(1) a. Kepler died in misery. b. Kepler did not die in misery. c. Kepler exists. (2) A: Do y

12、ou want some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. (2) I dont want any coffee.,33,学习交流PPT,没有预设，（1）就没有真假值，就不宜用于交际。 （2）B句的会话含义（2）并不是（2）B句的先决条件，而是在补充了下面的语境信息（2）后推出的结论。 （2）He doesnt want to stay awake. 当代语用学(2006：142),34,学习交流PPT,5.2 预设与蕴涵,蕴涵（entailment）【哲学、逻辑学】 涵蕴性(关系)陈述S1蕴涵一个陈述S2S1S2,35,学习交流PPT,蕴涵定义：,

13、如果在任何使A真实的情况下，B也真实，那么A语义上蕴涵B。 例如： That person is a bachelor. 这个句子蕴涵 That person is a man. （记作） 如果说 That person is not a bachelor. 那么原句的蕴涵很难说是真还是假。,36,学习交流PPT,句子A要蕴涵句子B必须满足的条件,1）如果A真实，B也真实， 2）如果A不真实，B可能真实，可能 不真实。,37,学习交流PPT,A句与B句构成前提必须满足的条件,1）如果A真实，B也真实。 2）如果A不真实，B仍然真实。 例如： John is married. 前提 John e

14、xists.,38,学习交流PPT,How to distinguish them?,a entails b on two conditions: If a is true, b is true. If a is false, b is true, or b is false. a presupposes b on two conditions: If a is true, b is true. If a is false, b is still true.,39,学习交流PPT,否定测试法（negation test）,1. a. John is married. b. John exist

15、s. c. John is not married. 2.a. John managed to stop the car. b. John stopped the car. c. John tried to stop the car. d. John did not manage to stop the car. b is the entailment of a. c is the presupposition of a.,40,学习交流PPT,前提与蕴涵的区分,Presupposition-is something the speaker assumes to be case prior t

16、o making an utterance . -Speaker, not sentence, have presupposition. -Speaker assumes it is known by listeners. Entailment-is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. -Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.,41,学习交流PPT,语义预设和蕴涵的区别：语义预设是一种特殊的蕴涵。 语用预设和蕴涵的区别：语用预设和语境有关，

17、蕴涵不涉及语境；预设有言外之意，而且言外之意可以推导。,前提与蕴涵的区分,42,学习交流PPT,预设关系表达公式,In many discussion of the concept, presupposition is treated as relationship between two propositions. If we say that the sentence in (1) contains the proposition p and the sentence in (2) contains the proposition q, then, using the symbol to

18、mean presuppose, we can represent the relationship as in (3). (1) Marys dog is cute. (=p) (2) Mary has a dog. (=q) (3) p q,43,学习交流PPT,When we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1) by negating it (=NOT p), as in (3), we find that the relationship of presupposition doesnt change. That is, the sa

19、me proposition q, repeated as (4), continues to be presupposed by NOT p, as shown in (5). (3) Marys dog isnt cute. ( = NOT p) (4) Mary has a dog. ( = q ) (5) NOT p q,预设关系表达公式,44,学习交流PPT,6. Presupposition-triggers前提触发语,前提的语用推理有时候未必以整句话的语义内容作为基础，它可以以某些词语，某些句式为基础。这些能作为前提基础的词项或表层结构形式就称为前提语(presuppositio

20、n-trigger)。,45,学习交流PPT,6. Presupposition-triggers前提触发语,In the analysis of how speakers assumptions are typically expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures, known as presupposition-triggers. In his Pragmatics (pp. 181-4), Levinson o

21、n the basis of Karttunen (31 types) lists 13 types of them, which he regards as the set of core phenomena.,46,学习交流PPT,对于前提触发语，有不少人归纳分析过。 Karttunen收集了三十一种； Levinson 选择了十三种。,47,学习交流PPT,6.1. Definite descriptions (定指描写) the , this/ that + NP, the 3rd person pronoun, possessive + n John got married last

22、 week. There existed a person called John. The team of explorers got lost in the jungles. There was a team of explorers. This house was once owned by a rich merchant. There once existed a house. Johns wife is a school teacher. John has a wife. John saw /didnt see a man with two heads. There existed

23、a man with two heads.,48,学习交流PPT,6.2. Factive verbs (叙实动词) regret, realize, know, be aware that, be sorry that, be glad that, be proud that, be pleased that, be odd, be strange, be disappointed that John realized that he had made a mistake. John made a mistake. He regretted having started the projec

24、t. He started the project. Im sorry that your dog died. Your dog died. He is pleased that his son is making progress in his music lessons. His son is making progress in his music lessons. Martha regrets / doesnt regret drinking Johns home brew. Martha drank Johns home brew.,49,学习交流PPT,6.3. Implicati

25、ve verbs(含义动词) manage, forget, happen He managed to get the ticket. He tried to get the ticket. I forget to bring the book. I ought to have brought the book. We happened to meet our neighbor in the cinema. We did not expect to meet our neighbor in the cinema. John managed/ didnt manage to open the d

26、oor. John tried to open the door.,50,学习交流PPT,6.4. Change of state verbs(状态变化动词) finish, stop, begin, start, carry on, continue, cease, leave, arrive, enter, come, go, turn, transform, etc. He stopped / didnt stop smoking cigars. He had been smoking cigars. It began to snow at midnight. It did not sn

27、ow before midnight. The guests arrived at 6. The guests were not here before 6. He carried on the work. Someone was doing the work. Her face turned pale. Her face had not been pale.,51,学习交流PPT,6.5. Iteratives (表示重复的词) The spaceship came back to earth. The spaceship had been on earth. He promised to

28、ring / didnt promise to ring again. He had rung before. Order was restored. There had been order before. Im visiting China for the third time. I have visited China twice before. This book is not reprinted any more. This book was printed before.,52,学习交流PPT,6.6. Verbs of judging (判断动词) Peter accused /

29、 didnt accuse Smith of forgery. Peter thinks forgery is bad. Mike criticized Mary for backing out at the last minute. Mary backed out at the last minute.,53,学习交流PPT,6.7. Temporal clauses (时间从句) After his father died he stepped into a large fortune. His father died. Since the new cabinet was formed,

30、there have been a lot of reforms in the country. A new cabinet was formed. While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics, the rest of social science was/ wasnt asleep. Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics.,54,学习交流PPT,6.8. Cleft sentence (分裂句) It is that / who what. It was John who danced the last

31、 dance with Mary. Someone danced the last dance with Mary. It was in a certain place that they got in touch with each other. They got in touch with each other in a certain place. It was /wasnt Henry that kissed Rosie. Someone kissed Rosie. What I lost is my passport. I lost something.,55,学习交流PPT,6.9

32、. Implicit clefts with stressed constituents带重音成分的隐形性分裂句,John did/didnt compete in the OLYMPICS. John did compete somewhere.,56,学习交流PPT,6.10. comparison &contrast (比较与对比) Marianne called Adolph a male chauvinist, and then HE insulted HER. For Marianne to call Adolph a male chauvinist would be to ins

33、ult him. Carol is a better pianist than Mike. Mike is a pianist. This essay is as good as the one you wrote last time. You wrote an good essay last time. Your house resembles ours. We have a house.,57,学习交流PPT,6.11. non-restrictive attributive clauses (非限定性定语从句) The Proto-Harrappans, who flourished 2

34、800-2650 B.C., were/ were not great temple builders. The Proto-Harrappans flourished 2880-2650 B.C. The island of Japan, which are located to the east of China, have frequently been struck by earthquakes of varying forces. The island of Japan are located to the east of China.,58,学习交流PPT,6.12. Counte

35、rfactual conditionals (违反实际的条件句) If Hannibal had only had twelve more elephants, the Romance languages would /wouldnt this day exist. Hannibal didnt have twelve more language. If I had not burnt the cake, we would be having it for tea. I burnt the cake. If Columbus had not discovered America, someon

36、e else would. Columbus discovered America. If Beethoven were still alive, he would be surprised to hear this rendition of this “Ode to Joy”. Beethoven is not alive.,59,学习交流PPT,6.13. Questions （疑问句） 是非问句，选择问句，特殊问句 Is there a piano in the room? Either there is a piano in the room or there is not a pia

37、no in the room. Does he speak English or French? He speaks either English or French. What can you expect? You are expecting something.,60,学习交流PPT,7. The problematic properties 一些有疑问的特性（沈家煊译）,7.1.Defeasibility (可撤消性) 7.2.The projection problem(映射问题),61,学习交流PPT,7.1.Defeasibility (可撤消性),We mentioned th

38、at conversational implicatures have some distinct properties, and defeasibility, or cancellability, is one of them. Now this seems to be a property of presupposition as well. In some contexts, a presupposition is defeasible. “他的考试成绩和别人不一样。” 这句话单独来看，可能预设“他参加了这次考试”，但如果再加上一句话，即“他的考试成绩和别人不一样，他是以特长生参加录取的

39、”则意味着他可能没有参加别人参加的考试。这样，原来的预设便不复有意义。,62,学习交流PPT,导致预设消失的语境因素 语境中的语言因素和语境中的非语言因素。 语言因素：（话语因素）把一句带有前提语的话置于一定的话语环境中，或者置于一定的上下文中，圆滑的前提便会消失。 John didnt manage to pass his exams. John tried to pass his exams. John didnt manage to pass his exams. In fact he didnt even try. 前提消失，因为在下文中被否定了。,63,学习交流PPT,在断裂句结构中

40、,It isnt Luke who will betray you. Someone will betray you. 假设这句话在下面的话语环境中： You say that someone in this room will betray you. Well maybe so. But it wont be Luke who will betray you, it wont be Paul, it wont be Matthew, and it certainly wont be John. Therefore no one in this room is actually going t

41、o betray you .,64,学习交流PPT,导致预设消失的语境因素 语境中的语言因素和语境中的非语言因素。 非语言因素：指交际双方所共有的知识或设想何某一前提矛盾。时间状语从句： Sue cried before she finished her thesis. Sue finished her thesis. Sue died before she finished her thesis.,65,学习交流PPT,7.2.The projection problem(映射问题),如果把一个句子嵌入到另一个句子中去，即把一个句子变成一个更大的句子的构成从句，原句的前提会发生什么样的变化呢

42、？这种预设的组合问题被称为预设的映射问题。 映射问题包括以下两个方面的内容： 7.2.1. 预设在语境中消失（蕴涵也消失） 7.2.2. 预设在语境中保持而蕴涵消失,66,学习交流PPT,7.2.1.预设在语境中消失,1).Denied by a constituent clause 主句原有的前提被一个从句否定 a. John didnt manage to pass his exams, in fact he didnt even try. He tried to pass the exam. (P) b. John doesnt regret doing a useless Ph. D

43、in linguistics because in fact he never did do one. John did a Ph. D in linguistics. (P),67,学习交流PPT,7.2.1.预设在语境中消失,2). suspended by a constituent clause 主句原有前提被从句“悬起” (荷恩Horn,1972) （变成从句条件，不再是整句前提） e.g. if-clauses a. John didnt cheat again, if indeed he ever did. b. Harry clearly doesnt regret being

44、 a police officer, if he actually ever was one. The if-clause in these examples throws doubt on the presupposition, or calls it into question. c. Either John has no wife, or his wife is away. The clauses denies each other.,68,学习交流PPT,7.2.2. 预设在语境中保持而蕴涵消失,Its possible that the chief constable arrested three men. There is a chief constable.（预设） The chief constable arrested two men.（蕴涵） 卡图南(1973)列出叙实动词、模态词、否定词等，称为“渗漏词”(holes)，因为它们允许预设向上渗漏到整个复句，但使蕴涵受阻。,69,学习交流PPT,卡图南,holes regret (+