Cohesion.ppt

1、Cohesion in discourse,cohesion,We know, for example, that texts must have a certain structure which depends on factors quite different from those required in the structure of a single sentence. Some of those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the ties and connections which exist within t

2、exts. A number of those types of cohesive ties can be identified in the following text: My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could. That car would be-worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think Id ra

3、ther have the convertible,There are connections present here in the use of pronouns, which we assume are used to maintain reference (via anaphora前指，回指) to the same people and things throughout: father _ he _ he _ he; my - my - I; Lincoln - it. There are lexical connections such as a Lincoln converti

4、ble - that car- the convertible, and the more general connections created by a number of terms which share a common element of meaning (e.g. money) bought - saving - penny - worth a fortune _ sold _ pay: (e.g. time) once - nowadays - sometimes. There is also a connector, However, which marks the rel

5、ationship of what follows to what went before. The verb tenses in the first four sentences are all in the past, creating a connection between those events, and a different time is indicated by the present tense of the final sentence.,19. Insoluble questions they were, it seemed to her, standing ther

6、e, holding James by the hand. He had followed her into the drawing-room, that young man they laughed at; he was standing by the table, fidgeting with something (MD, p.14),Analysis of these cohesive links within a text gives us some insight into how writers structure what they want to say, and may be

7、 crucial factors in our judgments on whether something is well-written or not. It has also been noted that the conventions of cohesive structure differ from one language to the next and may be one of the sources of difficulty encountered in translating texts.translation However, by itself, cohesion

8、would not be sufficient to enable us to make sense of what we read. It is quite easy to create a highly cohesive text which has a lot of connections between the sentences, but which remains difficult to interpret. Note that the following text has connections such as Lincolnthe car, red _ that color,

9、 her- she, letters - a letter, and so on.,自从在海边第一次看见这个美丽的少女，他就像着了迷似的爱上了她。他是个小心谨慎，处世稳健的人。他知道过早地表露是一种危险。因此，他一直按捺着自己的感情。只是根据道静的情形适可而止地谈着各种使她中意的话题。,He had fallen in love with this beautiful girl when be met her at the seaside.However，he was such a sophisticated and cautious man that he knew that reveali

10、ng his love too eagerly might spoli their friendship，so he had held back his feelings and talked only of subjects likely to please Tao-ching.,My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police was red. That color doesnt suit her. She consists of three letters. However, a letter isn

11、t as fast as a telephone call. It becomes clear from an example like this that the connectedness which we experience in our interpretation of normal texts is not simply based on connections between the words. There must be some other factor which leads us to distinguish connected texts which make se

12、nse from those which do not. This factor is usually described as coherence.,coherence,The key to the concept of coherence is not something which exists in the language, but something which exists in people. It is people who make sense of what they read and hear. They try to arrive at an interpretati

13、on which is in line with their experience of the way the world is. Indeed, our ability to make sense of what we read is probably only a small part of that general ability we have to make sense of what we perceive or experience in the world. You may have found, when reading the last example text, tha

14、t you kept trying to make the text fit some situation or experience which would accommodate all the details.,If you work at it long enough, you may indeed find a way to incorporate all those disparate elements into a single coherent interpretation. In doing so, you would necessarily be involved in a

15、 process of filling in a lot of gaps which exist in the text. You would have to create meaningful connections which are not actually expressed by the words and sentences. This process is not restricted to trying to understand odd texts. In one way or another, it seems to be involved in our interpret

16、ation of all discourses.,It is certainly present in the interpretation of casual conversation. We are continually taking part in conversational interactions where a great deal of what is meant is not actually present in what is said. Perhaps it is the ease with which we ordinarily anticipate each ot

17、hers intentions that makes this whole complex process seem so unremarkable. Here is a good example, adapted from Widdowson (1978): Her: Thats the telephone Him: Im in the bath Her: O.K.,There are certainly no cohesive ties within this fragment of discourse. How does each of these people manage to ma

18、ke sense of what the other says? They do use the information contained in the sentences expressed, but there must be something else involved in the interpretation. It has been suggested that exchanges of this type are best understood in terms of the conventional actions performed by the speakers in

19、such interactions. She makes a request of him to perform action . He states reason why he cannot comply with request . She undertakes to perform action,this is a reasonable analysis of what took place in the conversation, then it is clear that language-users must have a lot of knowledge of how conve

20、rsational interaction works which is not simply linguistic knowledge. Trying to describe aspects of that knowledge has been the focus of research by an increasing number of discourse analysts,A: I have two tickets for the concert. B: I am going to have an exam tomorrow.,关于老婆的使用说明书-参照国药标准说明书解释【品名】妻子【

21、通用名】老婆【化学名称】已婚女性【成分】水、蛋白质、脂肪、核糖核酸、碳水化合物及少量矿物质，气味幽香。【理化性质】酸性；可分为一价（嫁）、二价（嫁）、三价（嫁）.n价（嫁）。易溶于蜜语、甜言；遇钻石、名车、豪宅熔点降低，难溶于白丁。,【性状】本品为可乐状凹凸异性片，表面光洁，涂有各种化妆品、对钻石、铂金有强烈的亲和力；羞涩时泛红，生气时泛绿，随时间推移表面会出现黄斑，起绉，但不影响继续使用。,【功能主治】主治单身恐惧症，对失恋和相思病有明显效果，亦可用于烧淘洗买、带孩子。【副作用】气管炎、耳根软、视疲劳、行为受阻等。严重不良反应者，可致皮肉损伤。【用法用量】一生一片。,【禁忌症】公开服用二片或

22、二片以上【注意事项】肾功能不全者慎用。【规格】35千克至N千克，片重超标不影响使用。【贮藏】常温下保存。避免与成群女性、单独帅哥相处。严禁在外过夜。【包装】各种时装、鞋帽、首饰、手袋，随季节变化更换。【有效期】至离婚日止。【批准文号】见结婚证。【生产日期】见身份证。【生产企业】岳父岳母,关于老婆的使用说明书-参照国药标准说明书解释 【品名】妻子 【通用名】老婆 【别称】夫人、娘子、媳妇、爱人、太太、贤妻、浑家、老伴、婆娘、拙荆、贱内、内人、内子、堂客、执帚、牵手、糟糠、家里的、屋里头的、孩他娘、伢他妈 【化学名称】已婚女性 【成分】水、蛋白质、脂肪、核糖核酸、碳水化合物及少量矿物质，气味幽香。

23、 【理化性质】酸性；可分为一价（嫁）、二价（嫁）、三价（嫁）.n价（嫁）。易溶于蜜语、甜言；遇钻石、名车、豪宅熔点降低，难溶于白丁。 【性状】本品为可乐状凹凸异性片，表面光洁，涂有各种化妆品、对钻石、铂金有强烈的亲和力；羞涩时泛红，生气时泛绿，随时间推移表面会出现黄斑，起绉，但不影响继续使用。 【功能主治】主治单身恐惧症，对失恋和相思病有明显效果，亦可用于烧淘洗买、带孩子。 【副作用】气管炎、耳根软、视疲劳、行为受阻等。严重不良反应者，可致皮肉损伤。 【用法用量】一生一片。 【禁忌症】公开服用二片或二片以上 【注意事项】肾功能不全者慎用。 【规格】35千克至N千克，片重超标不影响使用。 【贮藏

24、】常温下保存。避免与成群女性、单独帅哥相处。严禁在外过夜。 【包装】各种时装、鞋帽、首饰、手袋，随季节变化更换。 【有效期】至离婚日止。 【批准文号】见结婚证。 【生产日期】见身份证。 【生产企业】岳父岳母。 祝的妇女同志们：节日快乐,How a text is created,The sources of textual unity are structrue and texture. Ties are necessary for the texture of a text. Each tie forms a semantic relation All the semantic relati

25、ons form the basis of cohesion. Four ways to create cohesion: Reference, ellipsis, conjuntion, and lexical cohesion.,Halliday(1976), Halliday (1985a), Halliday and Hasan (1985) contribute considerably to detailed description of cohesion. 1. Reference:a) comparative reference(cr); b)demonstrative ref

26、erence(dr); c) and personal reference(pr).,The reference may be to something that has gone before, anaphoric (an), or something that is coming later in the text, cataphoric (ca) There is also reference to what is outside the text, exophoric (ex), （语外照应，外指）endophoric (en) (语内照应，内指）,照应(Reference)指用代词等

27、语法手段表示的语义关系。英语中的照应分为3类：人称照应、指示照应和比较照应。其中较难的是分句照应(ClausalReference)。分句照应指的是某些词语的所指对象不是词或者短语，而是分句、句子、句子组合，甚至一个完整的语篇。,李林是我的朋友。（外指，李林存在于客观世界之中） 李林是我的朋友。他是武汉人。（内指，他回指前文提到的李林） 我讨厌你，李林！（内指，下指李林） （手指某物），那是你画的吗？（外指）,51A 人称照应 由人称代词表示的照应关系叫做“人称照应”（Personal Reference）。 在使用人称代词的时候，必须搞明确谁是它的照应对象，如果这一点含糊不清，就会模棱两可，

28、引出歧义。例如： ？Bill told his cousin that he should visit him before he left for Boston （谁到波士顿去？） ？Jane watched Julia walk into the library with her brother （Jane看见Julia和谁的兄弟走进图书馆？）,上述第一例之所以意义含糊，是因为Bill和his cousin都是男性，以致后面的人称代词hehim既可指Bill，也可指his cousin。第二例中的Jane和Julia都是女性，以致后面的her既可指Jane，也可指Julia。这两个句子，如

29、果改写成： Bill told his cousin to visit him before leaving for Boston 比尔告诉他的表弟在去波士顿以前来看望他一次。 Jane watched her brother and Julia walk into the library 简瞧见她的兄弟和朱莉亚走进图书馆。,意义就明确了。以上两例都说明，凡有两个或两个以上可能的照应对象，句子的意义就会含糊起来。另一方面，如果用了人称代词，却找不出照应对象，那也会表意含糊。例如： ？My father is a psychologist，and Ive decided to make it m

30、y profession ？Silas ploughed the field north of the house this morningHe completed it in three hours 在上述两例中，代词it都没有照应对象，从而意义不明。在第一例中，it不可能指上文的psychologist，因为it通常指物。在第二例中，it既不可能指the field，也不可能指the house，因为Silas不是在“造地”或“建屋”，而是在犁地。因此，这两句应该调整为： My father is a psychologist，and Ive decided to become one，t

31、oo 我父亲是一位心理学家，我也决定做个心理学家。 Silas ploughed the field north of the house this morningHe com-pleted the ploughing in three hours 今早赛拉斯在屋子北边犁地，他三小时完成了犁地工作。 又例如： Bill likes the way his mother cooks the meat？He likes them broiled with a little salt ？Jim went fishing in the lake and caught four of them,在上述两

32、例中，代词them也都没有照应对象。纠正的方法：或者在上文提供一个复数名词，或者直接把them变为一个复数名词： Bill likes the way his mother cooks chopsShe broils them with a little salt 比尔喜欢吃他母亲烧的排骨，她是加点盐烧烤的。 Jim went fishing in the lake and caught four suckers 吉姆在湖中垂钓，钓到四条吸盘鱼。 从人称代词及其照应对象的相互位置来看，照应关系可分为“后照应”（Anaphoric Reference）和“前照应”（Cataphoric Refe

33、rence）。所谓“后照应”，就是说，照应对象出现在上文，人称代词必须回顾上文来指出照应对象，anaphoric一词就是“向后指”的意思。我们在上面所举的例子都是“后照应”的现象。如果照应对象出现在下文，人称代词就得向前标明所指的对象，这时就出现“前照应”现象，cataphoric一词就是“向前指”的意思。 人称照应通常是由第三人称代词表示的。单数第一、二人称代词通常不须标明照应对象，因为I（我）就是指说话人自己，you （你）就是指说话对方，它们不需照应对象而意义自明。但是，复数第一、二人称代词有时可以指代包括第一、二人称代词在内的并列名词词组。例如： Jane and I may move

34、 to OklahomaWe hear that the climate there is healthful 简和我可能要移居俄克拉何马州。我们听说那里的气候有益于健康。 在这里，we指上文的Jane和I。又例如： You and Lucy can go there by carYou dont have to walk with us,你和露西可以乘车去。你们不必和我们一起步行。 在这里，you（你们）指上文的you和Lucy。 用人称代词表示句子之间的照应关系大多数是后照应现象，即照应对象通常出现在上文。但在从属分句中，人称代词也可以前照应。例如： Unless you tell him

35、 yourself，Mr Smith will lose faith in you com-pletely 除非你亲自告诉他，否则史密斯先生就会完全失去对你的信任。 Clever as he was，the boy found not a little difficulty in solving the problem 那孩子虽然聪明，在解决这个问题时还是有不少困难。 When he was at school，Tom scarcely read a book 汤姆在上学时，几乎不读书。 在上述三例中，出现在从属分句中的人称代词him，he和he分别指代下文主句中的Mr Smith，the b

36、oy和Tom。但若在并列分句中，人称代词通常是后照应的，而不能前照应。试比较下列两句： Old Tom was dying，and he knew it He was dying，and Old Tom knew it,这两个句子的意义是截然不同的：在第一例中，he显然是指Old Tom，it指上文整个的分句，意思是“老汤姆快死了，他也知道自己快死了。”在第二例中，he不是指Old Tom，而指另外一个人，全句的意思是“他快死了，而老汤姆也知道这个人快死了。” 由上述诸例可以看出，人称代词的照应对象通常是专有名词或名词词组，但人称代词it既可指代名词词组，也可指代整个的句子或分句。例如： I

37、cannot find anything wrong with this car；it runs well and sounds smooth 我找不出这车有什么毛病，它开动正常，响声平稳。 The mongrel wagged its tail enthusiastically when it heard the dinner bell 那杂交狗一听见吃饭的铃声便起劲地摇着尾巴。 Many students never improveThey got no advice and therefore keep repeating the same mistakesIts a terrible

38、shame,许多学生不见长进，他们不听指导，从而不断地重犯错误，真是太差劲了。 在上述第一、二两例中it和itsit分别指this car和the mongrel；在第三例中，it指上文中两个句子。这些都是后照应现象。当it指代整个句子时，它还可以表示前照应关系。例如： It should never have happenedShe went out and left the baby unattended 那是从来不会发生的事。她从来不会自己外出，而把娃娃留在家里无人照看。 I would never have believed itThey have accepted the whole

39、 scheme 我怎么也不会相信他们接受了这整个计划。 在这里，it分别指代下文中she went out and left the baby unattended （使娃娃无人照看）以及they have accepted the whole scheme（接受整个计划）这两个句子。人称代词it的这种前照应用法是其他人称代词所没有的。 人称代词及其照应对象之间存在着“人称”、“数”、“格”、“性”的一致问题。因此，在确定了照应对象以后，应使用什么人称代词，有时还会发生困难。这就是人称代词的选择问题。,Conjuntion,Additive 补充(ad) And, in addition, m

40、oreover, besides, above all, further, furthermore, not only but also, what is more, in the same way Concessive 让步(conc)However, nevertheless, even though, still, yet, but,Causal (result/consequence) 因果(ca) Consequently, so, accordingly, as a result, for this reason, hence, thus, owing to this/that,

41、due to this/that, because of this/that, therefore, with this in mind, under these circumstances Condition/deduction 条件,Condition 条件(con) Otherwise, under the circumstances, if so, if not, in that case, otherwise (ap) that, whether , who, which, when where why how The question when he will come is un

42、certain.,Cohesion at Work Conjunction,Use of Connectives to show time, cause and effect, concession, conditions, etc. Use of Connectives to show time, cause and effect, concession, conditions, etc. eg. Speaking and writing are different in many ways. Speech depends on sounds; writing, on the other h

43、and, uses written symbols. Speech was developed about 500 000 years ago, but written language is a recent development, invented only about six thousand years ago. Speech is usually informal, while the word choice of writing, by contrast, is often relatively formal. Although pronunciation and accent

44、often tell where the speaker is from, they are ignored in wiring because a standard diction and spelling system prevails in most countries. Speech relies on gesture, loudness, and the rise and fall of the voice, but writing lacks these features. Careful speakers and writers are aware of these differ

45、ences.,Lexical cohesion,Synonymy: buy-purchase; Antonymy: love-hate Hyponymy: fruit-apple Meronymy: tree-leaf Lexical repetition,Lexical cohesion,But one hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly

46、crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. So