Chapter 6 Pragmatics.ppt

1、Chapter 6 Pragmatics,Teaching Program,What is Pragmatics? *The basic notions of Pragmatics * Context and utterance meaning Speech act theory Principle of conversation Cross-cultural pragmatic faliure,1999年4月朱镕基在MIT演讲时说：1947年我在清华大学上学时，清华被称为中国的MIT。教科书大部分来自MIT我当时就憧憬有一天能来MIT学习，拿一个学位。 但是，校长先生请不要误会，我绝对不是要

2、个荣誉的学位。如果我要学位，一定要经过考试、答辩。,语言的艺术,A: You look pretty without glasses. B: : Do I look ugly with glasses?,语言的艺术,Definition of Pragmatics,- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. P77 - the study of language in use or language communication; the study of

3、the use of context to make inference about meaning. 意会大于言传。语用学要解释为什么“意会大于言传”。找出其中的规律。找出语言运用的规律。,1.It deals with how speakers used language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone. 2. It deals with how listeners arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. 3. It deals with th

4、e general principles followed by human beings when they communicate with one another.,Pragmatics,Some basic notions,Context Pragmatics vs. semantics Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Correctness vs. appropriateness,Context,Context- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally con

5、sidered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.,John is like a fish a) He swims well. b) He can drink a lot of bear. c) He is as cold as a fish.),He we

6、nt to town yesterday. ( If the hearer has committed some crime, and he is an inspector. It may mean: Be careful, you may be found out. ),Context,Pragmatics vs. Semantics,Semantics - is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics - the study

7、of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”. semantically, it means today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or gi

8、ving an invitation,Sentence meaning vs. Utterance meaning,Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; having a tr

9、iadic relation as in: What did you mean by X?,For example “The bag is heavy.”,a bag being heavy (sentence meaning); an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag; the speaker is declining someones request for help. Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence

10、 meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.,Correctness vs. Appropriateness,*“John pl

11、ay golf.”- grammatically incorrect; ?“Golf played John.” - logically incorrect; but it might be appropriate pragmatically in certain context.,Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication, especially in cross-

12、cultural communication. If you say something grammatically incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or deceitful. (Thomas, 1983),Semantics Pragmatics relationships insi

13、de between language Performatives (施为句) - sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a

14、fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.,表述句（ 言有所述）言有所述的句子是可以验证的。真假 The earth is globe. It is described what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. 1) I pour some liquid into the tube. 2) Ill show you the picture.,Constatives,The relevant participants and circumstance

15、s must be appropriate. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely. The relevant people must follow it up with actions as specified.,The principles for performatives,1.第一人称单数做主语 用一般现在时，陈述语气，主动语态，可以插入thereby hereby(以此，特此) 如： 2. I promise , I object , I agree, I swear I + VP,Patterns of Pe

16、rformatives,Examples of Performatives,“I do” “I name this ship Elizabeth.” “I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.” “I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.” “I declare the meeting open.”,Austins speech acts,According to Austins new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneous

17、ly when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. The locutionary act-an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); The illocutionary act-an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the int

18、ention of the speaker while speaking). The perlocutionary act-an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.,For example It is cold in here.,Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here; Its illocutionary act can be

19、 a request to shut the window; Its perlocutionary act can be the hearers shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request. -Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.” Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It a

20、ttempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.,Locution: the speaker said this utterance Illocution: he performs the act of warning Perlocution: it may cause the hearer to panic, scream, and scratch wildly at your ear. Causing these emotions and actions of yours

21、is the perlocution of this utterance.,For example There is a wasp in your ear.,Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation： -(the telephone rings) -H: That the phone. (1) -W: Im in the bathroom. (2) -H: Okay. (3),This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because th

22、e speakers understand each others illocutionary acts: (1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone. (2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead. (3) Accepting the wifes refusal and accepting her request, meaning “All right, Il

23、l answer it.”,Searles speech acts (1969),Assertives/representatives(陈述) Directives(指令) Commissives(承诺) Expressives(表达) Declarations(宣布),Representatives / Assertives,Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g. I think the film is moving. Im certain I have never seen the m

24、an before. I solemnly swear that he had got it.,Directives,Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g. I order you to leave right now. Open the window, please. Your money or your life!,Commissives,Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g. I promise to come. I will bring

25、 you the book tomorrow without fail.,Expressives,Expressing the speakers psychological state about something, e.g. Im sorry for being late. I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.,Declarations,Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g. I

26、now appoint you chairman of the committee. You are fired. I now declare the meeting open.,Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force. e.g. I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.,Note: (2) In order to get someone open th

27、e door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below: Could you open the door, please! Can you open the door! Do you mind opening the door? Open the door! The door please!,Principle of conversation,Cooperative principle (CP)- According to Paul Grice, in making conversation, there is a gene

28、ral principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.,如果遵守这四条准则，便可以进行高效，合理的交际。这样的语言合乎形式逻辑。 但会话有时会违反这项

29、准则。 Man: does your dog bite? Woman: No. ( The man reaches down to pet the dog. The dog bites the mans hand.) M: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesnt bite. W: He doesnt . But thats not my dog.,Cooperative principle (CP),男：我好像在哪里见过您，您贵姓？ 女：我姓我父亲的姓。 男：您做什么工作的？ 女：干“四化”的。 男：您家住在哪里？ 女：地球上。 男：您家有几口人？ 女：和我家自

30、行车一样多。 男：那么您家有几辆自行车？ 女：每人一辆。,Cooperative principle (CP),Husband: Where are the car keys? Wife : They are on the table in the hall. (Quality: truthfully, Quantity: right amount of information; relevance: directly addressed her husbands goal ),Cooperative principle (CP),Four maxims of CP,The maxim of

31、quality - Do not say what you believe to be false. - Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of quantity - Make your contribution as informative as required for the purpose. - Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation - Be relevant

32、 ( make your contribution relevant). The maxim of manner - Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. - Be brief. Be orderly.,Conversational Implicature,In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When a

33、ny of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.,Violation of Maxim of quality,You are the cream in my coffee. (metaphor) A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight? B:

34、The final exam is approaching. Im afraid I have to prepare for it. A: would you like to come to our party tonight? B: Im afraid Im not feeling so well tonight. A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night? B: That was no lady, that was my wife.,Violation of maxim of quantity,At a party a young man

35、 introduces himself by saying “Im Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried” A: When is Susans farewell party? B: Sometime next month. 同义重复 “War is war.” “Girls are girls.” “Boys are boys.”,Violation of maxim of relation,A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie? B: We had a basketball match with cla

36、ss 2 and we beat them. (indirect refusal) A: The hostess is an awful bore. B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, arent they? A: What time is it? B: The postman has just arrived.,Violation of maxim of manner,A: Shall we get something for the kids? B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.,屡战屡败 屡败屡战 (曾国

37、藩),1. A: I could eat an ox. B: 2. A: Where have you been? B: Out. 3. A: Do you know what that word mean ? B: Dont you have a dictionary? 4. A: How do you like my painting? B:I dont have an eye for beauty, Im afraid (I dont like it at all),Discussion Analyze the following conversations.,Teaching Prog

38、ram,1. More about Pragmatics 2. Conversational implicature 3. Deixis 4. PP (Politeness Principle),Cross-cultural pragmatics 跨文化语用学 Societal pragmatics 社会语用学 Cognitive pragmatics 认知语用学,The main branches of Pragmatics,受文化影响的社交语用现象： A: Your handwriting is really excellent. B: No, Oh, really? Thank you.

39、 Go to work happily, and come back safely. Good luck! Careful! Mind yourself!,1. Cross-cultural pragmatics,语言的使用与交际的场合，都要讲究语用。 Guangzhou Restaurant -Eating in Guangzhou, we are Number One. (China Daily) Guangzhou Restaurant- if you had a chance to eat out in Guangzhou, it will be your first choice.,

40、2. Societal pragmatics,认知和交际关系的一系列问题。 A: Do you want some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake.,3. Cognitive pragmatics,The second major theory in pragmatics is the theory of conversational implicature, proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice. 日常会话中人们交谈时表达的意义分两种： 1）说话人表达的字面意义。直截了当

41、 2）说话人表达的含蓄意义。含蓄隐晦： 规则性；非规则性,Conversational implicature,a. 规则性: 单词，词语本身规约意义决定。 He is a sportsman, therefore, he is strong. b. 非规则性: 非规则性的含蓄和说话人的词语时间界定，以话语内容为基础，但表达的内容无疑要多于话语义。 (1) A. Can you tell me the time? B. Well, the mail has already come. (2) A. Are you going to Johns birthday party? B. Ive he

42、ard Mary is going.,Conversational implicature,1）Calculability 可推导性 2）Non-Detachability 不可分离性 3）Non-Conventionality 非规约性 4）Cancellability 可消除性,Characteristics of implicature,The speaker try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are ca

43、lculable. a. You are the cream in my coffee. The presupposition : I dont quite like cream in my coffee. b. He is a machine. 效率高勤奋/冷漠，古板。 列车员：三号车厢里有名神经病人正大吵大闹，他自称是拿破仑。 车长： 不要害怕，下站是滑铁卢。,1）Calculability,The conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content. Therefore it is possible to use

44、a synonym and keep the implicature intact. 会话含义依附于话语义。 A: Did your treatment for stammering work? B: She sells seashells on the seashore. A: How amazing! B:. yew, b-b-but th-th-thats not s-s-something I v-v-very often w-w-want to s-s-say.,2）Non-Detachability,Entailments is constant in all contexts.

45、衍推是规约意义的一部分the implicature is indeterminate, which varies with the context. Man: Would you like to invite me up for a coffee? Woman: Oh Im afraid the place is in a terrible mess,3）Non-Conventionality 非规约性,通过增加句子可以消除原来的含义。 The conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the CP, the ling

46、uistic and situational contexts. The implicatures can be cancelled by additional clauses. 朱镕基讲话,4）Cancellability,Deixis：The relation between the language and the immediate interactional context of use. The term or a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to a time, place, or persons. Acc

47、ording to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis, discourse deixis. and social deixis.,Deixis (Deictic) 指示语,Give me a handout. a. a student in the classroom b. a beggar on the street c. a person in the shop,For example,I, we, you, he, she etc. For Exampl

48、e A: John Smith is sick and cant attend your class today. He requested me to notify you.” Professor: “All right. Who is this speaking?” A: “This is my roommate.”,1) Person deixis: 人称指示,A. The old man thinks hes in love with his daughter. B. (Appalled) Good God! Were out of our depth here. We could n

49、ot understand. A. No, no, no- he hasnt got a daughter-the old man thinks hes in love with his daughter. B. The old man is? A. Hamlet, in love with the old mans daughter, the old man thinks. B. Ha! Its beginning to make sense! Unrequited passion!,For example,2) Place deixis: 地点指示 (here, there, right,

50、 above) A: I want to get out, not in. B: Ok, its this way. 3) Time deixis: 时间指示 (now, then, next, etc. ) Yesterday I defended my PhD thesis. Im planning a party now. Ill start looking for a job tomorrow. Just a second.,When you use the deixis, you should have a clear point of reference. 参照点 Put the

51、piano here. No, not here, but here. 不是这个，也不是这个；就是这个，就是这个家伙抢了我的钱包。,Note,Discourse deixis,Discourse deixis: refers to the words or expressions used in utterances to convey some deictic information of relation between utterances or part of an utterance in a discourse. E.g. so, because, but, therefore,S

52、ocial deixis,Social deixis: the words, linguistic forms or grammatical categories that can show the social status or background and the social relations of the participants. E.g. madam, sir, professor, Jonny,Tom, will you come to my party tonight? So we can see Titanic. Tom- social you, my, we- pers

53、on come- place Tonight- time So- discourse,Example,Politeness Principle (PP),Based on this observation, Leech proposes the politeness principle (PP), which contains six maxims. Tact Minimize cost to other. Maximize benefit to other. Generosity Minimize benefit to self. Maximize cost to self. Approba

54、tion Minimize dispraise of other. Maximize praise of other.,Politeness Principle (PP),Based on this observation, Leech proposes the politeness principle (PP), which contains six maxims. Modesty Minimize praise of self. Maximize dispraise of self. Agreement Minimize disagreement between self and othe

55、r. Maximize agreement between self and other. Sympathy Minimize antipathy between self and other. Maximize sympathy between self and other.,Relation between CP and PP,The PP is the superordinate principle standing above the CP. The PP overrides the CP. People sometimes violate the CP in order to fol

56、low the PP. For example: -We will miss Tom and Marry, wont we? -I will miss Tom.,Exercises,. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F 2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic

57、s is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T 3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F,9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F 10. Speech act theory starte

58、d in the late 50s of the 20th century. T 11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T 12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention. F,T/F,1. P_ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatics 2. The notion of c_ is essential to the pragmatic study of language. context 3. The meaning of a sentence is a_, and decontexualized. abstract 4. P_ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Performatives,. Fill in each blank,1. An i_ act is the act