《研究论文写作》PPT课件.ppt

1、研究論文寫作Research Paper Writing,尚惠芳 教授兼系主任 義守大學應用英語學系,1,97學年度第二學期,2,Outline,Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Literature Review and Research Problems Survey Research Qualitative Methods Mixed-Methods and Mixed-Model Designs Sampling Data Collection Data Analysis, Interpretation, and Reporting Writi

2、ng Research Paper,3,Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research,Section I,4,Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research ( by James Neill),5,Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research,6,Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research,7,Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research,8,Literature Review and Research Problems,Section II,9

3、,Literature Review and Research Problems,I. Why Do a Literature Review? A. for planning primary research: 1. find a lack of consistency in reported results 2. find a flaw in research methods 3. conduct on a different population 4. find a solution for a problem 5. uncertainty about the interpretation

4、,10,B. As an end in itself: 1. inform practice (e.g. solve a problem) 2. provide understanding about the topic (longer process for integrative research review),Literature Review and Research Problems,11,II. What Is the Search Process? A. Nine steps: 1. Identify a research topic (cause effect) 2. Rev

5、iew secondary sources to get an overview 3. Develop a search strategy (collect databases, titles, abstract, full texts) 4. Conduct the search (search the sources),Literature Review and Research Problems,12,5. Get a copy of the article 6. Read and prepare bibliographic information and notes 7. Evalua

6、te the research reports (identify major points) 8. Analyze the research findings and synthesize the results (narrative and statistical methods) 9. Use the literature review (based on major points),Literature Review and Research Problems,13,III. Research Questions and Hypotheses: A. four categories o

7、f research questions: 1. descriptive 2. normative 3. correlative 4. impact,Literature Review and Research Problems,14,1. Descriptive questions: Provide information about what is or has been happening related to the research topic (e.g., What is the major difficulty for EFL writers?) 2. Normative que

8、stions: Provide information compared with some standard or expected observation (e.g., Will EFL teachers achieve a better quality if they get a teaching certificate?),Literature Review and Research Problems,15,3. Correlative questions: Identify relationship (e.g., What is the relationship between th

9、e year of training in writing and ss writing performance?) 4. Impact questions: Identify effect (e.g., What is the effect of teachers positive comments on ss writing performance?),Literature Review and Research Problems,16,4-1. Two types of hypotheses: directional hypothesis: can expect the outcome

10、e.g., “If ss can get teachers positive comments, (then) they will have a better writing performance” null hypothesis: can not expect the outcome e.g., “There is no difference between teachers positive comments and ss writing performance”,Literature Review and Research Problems,17,IV. In Summary, the

11、 Purposes of Literature Review: Provide previous research results (big picture) Provide a need for additional research (problem) Develop a conceptual framework (from major points to generate research questions and hypotheses) Guide the research design and conduct the study,Literature Review and Rese

12、arch Problems,18,Survey Research,Section III,19,Survey Research,I. Main Purpose of Survey (Quantitative) Research: Collect data from a larger number of people Rely on individuals self-reports of their knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors II. Design Phase: Write the purpose of the survey (like a thesis

13、 statement) Write research questions based on the purpose (thesis),20,Survey Research,III. Three Design Considerations: Descriptive approach Cross-sectional approach Longitudinal approach,21,Survey Research,Descriptive approach: A survey describing the characteristics of a sample at one point in tim

14、e (e.g., senior students research paper writing difficulties in the Department of Applied English at I-Shou University in 2009),22,Survey Research,Cross-sectional approach: A survey examining several groups at one point in time (e.g., different grade level students writing difficulties in the AE Dep

15、artment at ISU in 2009) Pro: Compare responses across different grade levels in a shorter time Con: Not easy to make a comparison due to different subjects,23,Survey Research,Longitudinal approach: A survey examining one group at different points in time (e.g., 1-year, 2- year-, and 3-year graduates

16、 perceptions of RP course in the AE Department at ISU in 2006-2008) Pro: Follow the same subjects over a period of time Con: Take a longer time,24,Survey Research,IV. Data Collection Choices: Mail, telephone, personal interviews, email, web-based surveys, etc. Mail: Pro: Collect closed-ended informa

17、tion; low cost; enough time for the respondents Con: Lower response rates; no more in-depth information,25,Survey Research,Phone interviews: Pro: Collect open-ended information; higher response rate; more additional information Con: More costly; cant observe participants body language and facial exp

18、ressions,26,Survey Research,Personal interviews: Pro: Less structured approach; more conversational style; easy to get additional information; highest response rate Con: Take more time,27,Survey Research,V. Sampling Plan: Identification of participants: Identify the participants who have the informa

19、tion you want or who have experienced the event Population definition: More specific about the participants sources,28,Survey Research,Two Sampling decisions: 1. Probability sampling: Need to specify to whom the results will be generalized 1-1. Sampling frame: to give a list of people who have a cha

20、nce to be selected 1-2. Only choose the population included in the sampling frame 2. Purposeful sampling: Need to provide sufficient details about the important characteristics of the participants,29,Survey Research,Three sources of sampling errors: Coverage errors: (a) should be in the sampling fra

21、me, but not there, (b) should not be in the frame, but in there 2. Nonresponse errors: (a) refuse to be interviewed, (b) cant complete questionnaire, (c) cant be reached 3. Sampling errors: Use different (wrong) sampling strategies drawn from a population,30,Survey Research,VI. Designing the Questio

22、nnaire: A. Review the literature: Borrow what has been designed before (with appropriate citations and permissions) B. Develop your own questionnaire: 1. follow Delphi Technique: Ask experts to provide ideas for better questionnaire, and then do a pilot testing with a larger sample,31,Survey Researc

23、h,2. Explain to yourself why asking each question 3. Decide format: Open (answer questions in own words) or closed format (multiple-choice, true-false, checklist) 4. Do a pilot study to include all alternative responses 5. Avoid psychologically threatening (socially desirable) questions 6. Clear ite

24、ms: Provide a definition of the terms first 7. Short items,32,Survey Research,8. Avoid negative wording questions (e.g., Which of these are not ?) 9. Avoid items that ask more than one idea 10.Use appropriate word level 11.Avoid leading questions 12.Emphasize critical words by using italics or under

25、lining or bold letters,33,Survey Research,VII. Formatting the Questionnaire: Make it attractive Organize and lay out the questions Number the items and pages Put the returned address and name at the beginning and end of the questionnaire Include brief, clear instructions,34,Survey Research,6. Use ex

26、amples if necessary 7. Organize the questions in a logical sequence 8. Begin with a few interesting and nonthreatening items 9. Do not put the most important items at the end 10.Avoid using questionnaire or checklist on the form (use the title “Response Form”),35,Survey Research,VIII. Pilot Testing

27、the Questionnaire: Select a sample similar to your population Give more spaces for writing comments Encourage pilot participants to give suggestions Follow the procedures that you plan to use in your study Add, change, or delete any questions if necessary,36,IX. Special Types of Questions: 1. Demogr

28、aphic questions: 1-1. Background information (e.g., gender, age, etc.) 2. Nonthreatening behavioral questions: 2-1. Ask general questions on usual behavior first 2-2. Bounded recall: “e.g., In the last year.” 2-3. Wording of question: “e.g., Are your difficulties in writing a research paper mainly d

29、ue to your grammar problem?”,Survey Research,37,3. Threatening behavioral questions: Any questions elicit a defensive reaction in the participant; better to use : 3-1. open-ended questions 3-2. longer questions with explanations 3-3. familiar words 3-4. put answers into sealed envelopes 3-5. use app

30、ropriate wording (e.g., “Did you ever happen to .”, “Such behaviors occur with different frequencies.”) 3-6. use multiple measures until getting the truth,Survey Research,38,4. Knowledge questions: Ask questions to test participants knowledge of a subject in school; better to use: 4-1. knowledge que

31、stions before asking attitude questions 4-2. appropriate level of difficulty 4-3. avoid asking “Do you happen to know .?” 4-4. avoid using mail survey (may check up the answer),Survey Research,39,Survey Research,5. Attitude questions: Should give a definition of the term or concept in advance; bette

32、r to ask: 5-1. three kinds of attitudes: 5-1-1. affective (like vs. dislike): How does the person feel about this? 5-1-2. cognitive (knowledge): What does the person know about this? 5-1-3. action: What is the person willing to do about this?,40,Survey Research,5-2. assess attitude strength (e.g., H

33、ow much do you like or dislike .?) 5-3. avoid asking more than one concept (e.g., Would you vote for me and peace or my opponent and war?) 5-4. use bipolar questions (e.g., Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with .?) 5-5. move on to measure degree of positive or negative attitude (e.g., Are you stron

34、gly satisfied or moderately satisfied with .?) 5-6. Use five points/alternatives on the rating scale,41,Survey Research,X. Letter of Transmittal: A cover letter to specify the purpose of the survey; hints to motivate the returned questionnaires Appeal to authority: Need the well-known persons signat

35、ure Appeal to self-interest: “You are one of the few people with the intelligence to be able to help us with this issue.” Appeal to professional interests: “This is a very important question in our field (society).”,42,Survey Research,4. Appeal to altruism: “The results of this survey will be used t

36、o solve one of our students writing problems.” 5. Appeal to curiosity: Offer to send a copy of the results 6. Appeal to greed: Offer to send a monetary incentive 7. Appeal to a sense of connection: Enclose a tea bag or a pencil (more details will be shown in the consent form),43,Survey Research,XI.

37、Conducting the Survey: Send out an advance (cover) letter Enclose the questionnaire with the transmittal letter Supervise the data collection Send a follow-up to nonrespondents 4-1. send again 4-2. send a postcard reminder 4-3. make a call 5. Control processing errors 6. Enter the data into the data

38、base 7. Clean up the data before you begin analysis,44,Survey Research,XII. Notes Specific to Personal Interviews: Hold an introductory meeting to share the purpose, and get assurance to participate Schedule the interview time Make a flexible interview Dont use yes or no questions; plan to ask open-

39、ended questions (e.g., How do you feel about .? What is you opinion about .? What do you think about .?) Conclude with open-ended questions: (e.g., Is there anything that I didnt ask about.? Is there anything that you wanted to tell me.?) Pretest your interview procedures,45,Survey Research,XIII. St

40、arting and Conducting the Interview: Briefly review the purpose of the interview and information needed Focus on what the participant is saying Sequence the questions from general to specific Ask for specific examples Ask a variety of different kinds of questions Avoid asking “why” questions; better

41、 to use “how come” Use role play or simulation questions (If I were your .) Record the interview and take notes,46,Qualitative Method,Section IV,47,Qualitative Method,I. Main Purpose of Qualitative Research: Provide in-depth descriptions to interpret something by using case study, personal experienc

42、es, interview, observation Complexity, contextual, exploration, discovery, inductive logic,48,II. Strategies for Qualitative Research: 1. Ethnographic research: Describe and analyze practices and beliefs of cultures and communities by interacting with people in their everyday lives 2. Case study: De

43、tailed study of one individual (of a group) through observation,Qualitative Method,49,Qualitative Method,3. Phenomenological research: Seek the individuals perceptions and meaning of a phenomenon or experience; “what is the meaning of the experience of this phenomenon for this person or group of peo

44、ple?”,50,Qualitative Method,4. Grounded theory: Develop a theory after gathering and analyzing the data 5. Participatory research: Co-research the issue cooperatively 6. Clinical research: Understand a problem within a clinical context 7. Focus groups: Observe the interaction within the group (e.g.,

45、 group interviews),51,III. General Methodological Guidelines: “Interview” A. The researcher is the instrument B. Speaking for the other C. Focus on an area of inquiry D. Explore research sites E. Gaining permission F. Negotiating entry G. Entering the field H. Role of the researcher,Qualitative Meth

46、od,52,Qualitative Method,The researcher is the “instrument”: 1. what questions to ask 2. in what order 3. what to observe 4. what to write down 5. key person to collect and interpret data,53,Qualitative Method,B. Speaking for the other: Retell someones story or experiences in a new way (re-writing)

47、C. Focus on an area of inquiry: Explore the topic based on literature review and research questions (tentative) D. Explore research sites: Collect information from the place (location) you do the study by piloting, sampling, etc.,54,Qualitative Method,E. Gaining permission: Try to get permission fro

48、m the “gatekeepers” (those with power and authority) F. Negotiating entry: How to get the true information with protection of human beings and their organization G. Entering the field: Make plans to enter the field in the least disruptive manner,55,Qualitative Method,H. Role of the researcher: Unbia

49、sed, objective, discover multiple views of the participants; more interactive 1. Supervisor (with authority) 2. Leader (e.g., scout leaders) 3. Friend (with respect),56,Qualitative Method,IV. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research: Credibility Transferability Dependability Confirmability Authenti

50、city Emancipatory,57,Qualitative Method,A. Credibility: Internal validity (a correspondence between how the researcher observes and participants express viewpoints) 1. Prolonged and substantial engagement: Give enough time staying at the site 2. Persistent observation: Sufficient observation until i

51、dentifying clear issues/picture 3. Peer debreifing: Discuss with the disinterested peers for better research ideas,58,Qualitative Method,4. Negative case analysis: If the finding doesnt fit the hypothesis, seek more information and analyze the negative case 5. Progressive subjectivity: Be open-minde

52、d and keep changing if necessary 6. Member checks: Share research results with peers for comment 7. Triangulation: Check information from different sources or methods to find consistency (e.g., quantitative data = qualitative findings),59,Qualitative Method,B. Transferability: Thick description (pro

53、vide sufficient details such as time, place, context) and multiple cases for external validity (generalize the results to other similar situation) C. Dependability: Reliability (maintain the same result without change no matter tested how many times) D. Confirmability: Objectivity (provide evidences

54、 by synthesizing data instead of researchers imagination),60,Qualitative Method,E. Authenticity: Present a balanced view of all values and beliefs Fairness: Display different views (pros and cons) Ontological authenticity: Show individuals real experiences Catalytic authenticity: Get evidences of pa

55、rticipants views by the “inquiry” process,61,Qualitative Method,F. Transformative Paradigm Criteria: Positionality or standpoint epistemology: The research result can not contain all universal truth because a lot of factors may influence the result; should avoid showing the position or standpoint of

56、 the author Community: Know the research site well to link the research results to positive action within that community,62,Qualitative Method,Attention to voice: Speak for the minority Critical reflexivity: Be sensitive to understand the psychological state of participants Reciprocity: Develop trus

57、t with participants Sharing the perquisites of privilege: Share research results,63,Mixed-Methods and Mixed-Model Designs,Section V,64,Definition and Characteristics: A. Use both qualitative and quantitative methods in the design, data collection, and analysis B. Quantitative analysis first, and the

58、n followed by content analysis of qualitative data,Mixed-Methods and Mixed-Model Designs,65,II. Importance in Educational and Psychological Research: A. Obtain a more complete picture of human behavior and experience B. Provide broader and deeper understanding of the issue,Mixed-Methods and Mixed-Mo

59、del Designs,66,III. Three paradigms for deeper understanding: A. Pragmatic paradigm: 1. Researcher determines which method to use to answer a specific research question (i.e., find a problem/issue and use a method for solutions) 2. Conduct the study and anticipate the results based on researchers own values and explanations (the result may match