英语语言学自编教材第八章

1、 Chapter 8 Language and Society1. Speech Community Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) People on the earth form different groups. The groups may be as large as countries or as small as consisting of only a few people. Can you list some of the social groups you have obse

2、rved?2) People can be grouped according to educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age, or the ethnic affiliation of its member. Can you cite some examples to show that people who belong to different social groups may have some words or expressions peculiar to their groups.3) As Chin

3、ese, we speak the same language, but we speak Chinese differently. Why do you think we speak differently? Can you offer some explanations for this phenomenon?4) A person may belong to several social groups. List some of the social groups to which you belong. Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoin

4、ts to LearnSocial groups are dynamic. They can be very large or very small. People of the same social group usually share some similarities, forming a speech community. In terms of age, we have the speech communities of youngsters, adults, etc. In terms of occupations, workers form a speech communit

5、y while teachers form another speech community. A speech community may distinguish itself from other speech communities by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age, or the ethnic affiliation of its member, etc. Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specializ

6、ed jargon, distinct social groups like high school students or hip hop fans, or even tight-knit groups like families and friends. In addition, online and other mediated communities, such as many internet forums, often constitute speech communities. Members of speech communities will often develop sl

7、ang or jargon to serve the groups special purposes and priorities. Since social groups are dynamic, so are the speech communities. Within the same speech community, there might be different social groups. For example, we Chinese form a speech community, because we speak the same language, interact w

8、ith each other and have similar or the same attitude to the language norms. However, we are also divided into different social groups because of the differences in social factors like educational background, gender, etc. A person can (and almost always does) belong to more than one speech community.

9、 The notion of speech community is important when we analyze language variation and change. Definitions to clarifySpeech community: A speech community is defined asa group of people who form a community, share the same language or a particular variety of a language, have the opportunity to interact

10、with each other and share linguistic norms such as the sharing of understanding, values and attitudes about language varieties present in their community. 2. Relationships between language and society Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder overCertain linguistic phenomena cannot

11、be accounted for unless they are placed in the general context of society.1) Everyone knows what is supposed to happen when two English men who have never met before come face to face in a railway compartment-they start talking about the weather. In some case this may simply be because they happen t

12、o find the subject interesting. Most people, though, are not particularly interested in analyses of climatic conditions, so there must be other reasons for conversations of this kind. What do you think are the possible reasons for conversations of this kind?2) You might have noticed we speak the sam

13、e language, say, Chinese, but do we speak the same language, Chinese, in the same way? Discuss with your classmates to find some of the reasons why we speak the same language differently.3) Social environment in which we live may influence our language uses. In the traditional society, women were pr

14、ejudiced against. We may find in the English language or other languages there are some words and expressions which show the prejudice against women. Can you cite some examples to illustrate on this point?4) In some countries in some tropical regions of the world, there is no word “snow” in their la

15、nguages, however, Eskimo has several single words to refer to different types of snow. Try to offer some explanation for this phenomenon. 5) With the development of science and technology, each day, there are new words created. Do you know some of the words coined because of social changes? Give som

16、e examples if possible.6) We often evaluate languages and dialects spoken around us in different ways. For example, Black English is often regarded as “incorrect”, “vulgar”, “corrupt” or “lazy” while Standard English is considered to be “correct”, “beautiful”, “nice”, “pure” and so on. Do you agree

17、with this kind of values attributed to Black English or Standard English? Why or why not? Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnLanguages and society are related in many ways. The relationship between language and society can be firstly displayed in the use of language to maintain or e

18、stablish relationships between each other. When we meet each other, we usually greet each other. We greet each other not because we want to convey some new information to others, but to keep or strike up a relationship. If we do not greet our friends, relationship will become tense.When two English

19、men who have never met before come face to face in a railway compartment, they start talking about the weather. It can often be quite embarrassing to be alone in the company of someone you are not acquainted with and you do not want to speak to. If no conversation takes place, the atmosphere can bec

20、ome rather strained. Probably the most important thing about the railway-compartment conversations of this kind is not the words they are using, but the fact that they are talking at all. Language is not simply a means of communicating information; it is also a very important means of establishing a

21、nd maintaining relationships with other people. Another indication of the relationship between language and society is that though we speak the same language, we, in a sense, speak the same language differently. This is because our social background may affect the way we speak. The kind of language

22、we choose to use is in part determined by such social factors as our birth place, age, sex, educational background, occupations, and social classes, etc. When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.The third indication of the relationship between lang

23、uage and society is that social environment can be reflected in the use of language. In the traditional English society, women were prejudiced against. This prejudicial attitude can be found in the change of meanings of the same terms when applied to each gender. For example, when we say a man is a

24、tramp, we mean he is homeless, jobless and poor, but when the same term is applied to a female, she is a prostitute. The prejudicial attitude can also be reflected in the use of a masculine pronoun to refer to somebody whose sex is unspecified or unknown. When we consider the counterparts in the Eng

25、lish vocabulary, we find while master is a respectable term, mistress, a title which used to be the counterpart of master, is now a woman who a man has a sexual relationship with but is not married to.The reflection of social environment in the use of language can also be seen in the structures of v

26、ocabulary, for example, in the structure of kinship terms in our language. It is generally believed that if a thing, a relationship, or a concept, etc. is important to a society, then, in the language of that society, we can find a lexicalized word or a single word to refer to that important thing,

27、or relationship or concept. We can assume that the important kin relationships in English-speaking societies are those that are signaled by single vocabulary items. For example, in the English society, the distinction between brother and sister is important because these relationships are lexicalize

28、d, while the distinction between elder brother and younger brother is not significant because they are expressed in a roundabout way. The fourth possibility for the relationship between language and society can be viewed from the embodiment of physical environment especially in the lexical structure

29、 of a language. In some countries in some tropical regions of the world, there is no word “snow” in their languages, however, Eskimo has several single words to refer to different types of snow. The reasons for this are obvious. It is essential for Eskimos to be able to distinguish efficiently betwe

30、en different types of snow. English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimo this sort of distinction is lexicalized-made by means of individual words.The relationship between language and society can also be seen from effects

31、of social changes on language uses. With the development of society, many new things come into being, thus the creation of new words for their references. As a social phenomenon, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. Standard English is only one variety among many, although a pecul

32、iarly important one. Linguistically speaking, it cannot even legitimately be considered better than other varieties. All languages, and correspondingly all dialects, are equally “good” as linguistic systems. All varieties of a language are structured, complex, rule-governed systems which are wholly

33、adequate for the needs of their speakers. The value judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. There is nothing inherent in non-standard varieties which makes them inferior. Any apparent inferiority is due only to their association with

34、 speakers from under-privileged, low-status groups. In other words, attitudes towards non-standard dialects are attitudes towards their users. Definitions to Clarify3. Language Varieties Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) We often say we speak English; in fact there ar

35、e different varieties of English which exist in the world according to geographic regions in which they are used. Share with your desk-mates your knowledge of these different varieties and say something about their similarities and differences. 2) Language use may vary with social factors. For examp

36、le, Royal family members tend to use the word lavatory while those other than royal family members tend to use toilet. This shows that language variation may be a result of different social classes. Can you think out some other examples to show the variation of language use with other social factors

37、? Summaries to MakeEach language exists in a number of varieties and is in one sense the sum of those varieties. For example, we have geographically and socially defined varieties, known as dialects. Geographically defined, English has many varieties such as American variety of English, British vari

38、ety of English, Canadian variety of English, Australian variety of English and Singaporean variety of English, to name just a few. Socially defined, language may vary with such social factors as age, sex, social classes, educational background, etc. Such varieties resulting from these social factors

39、 are social varieties, or social dialects. For example, we have genderlect, a variety associated with different sexes, and sociolect, a variety in variance with different social classes. Language use may also vary with a particular purpose or a particular social setting. For example, an English spea

40、ker may adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. “walking”, not “walkin”) and refrain from using the word “aint” when speaking in a formal setting, but the same person could violate all of these prescriptions in a

41、n informal setting. Some linguists call these varieties situational varieties. Definitions to ClarifyLanguage varieties: Variety is a generic term for a particular coherent form of language in which specific extra linguistic criteria can be used to define it as a variety.Register: It is the situatio

42、nal use of language, a variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular setting.3.1 Dialects 3.1.1 Regional Dialects Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder overWe are brought up in different regions. We speak different regional dialects. For example:In the North of Englan

43、d: You need your hair cutting.In the South of England: You need your hair cutWhat do you think are the causes of the regional dialects? Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnA language is typically composed of a number of regional dialects. The differences in regional dialects may occu

44、r at any level of language, including pronunciation, grammar, semantics, and language use. Regional dialects are possibly caused by geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers, etc. Very often, we can notice that the people living at one side of a high mountain speak a dialect which is different

45、 from a dialect used by the people living at the other side of the same mountain. The high mountain has prevented the people from free communication, thus different regional dialects occur. Geographical distances may be another cause of regional dialects. The longer the geographical distance between

46、 two regions, the greater the differences in dialects. This is especially true in the old days when transportation was not so convenient as it is now. In addition, loyalty to ones native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change can also partly account for the existence of regional

47、dialects. Definitions to ClarifyDialect: It refers to any regional, social or ethnic variety of a language.Regional dialect: It refers to the language variety used in a geographical region.3.1.2 Social Dialects3.1.2.1 Language Variation with Social Classes: Class Dialect Relevant Language Use Observ

48、ations and Questions to Ponder over1) When we look at the language used by two speakers A and B, we can estimate roughly their relative social status. Who do you guess has a higher social status, Speaker A or Speaker B? Why?Speaker ASpeaker BI did it yesterday.I done it yesterday.He hasnt got it.He

49、aint got it.It was she that said it.It was her what said it. 2) Geographical barriers can result in regional dialects. What do you think are the possible reasons for the development of class dialect? Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnRegional dialects are geographically based, but

50、class dialects are the result of social barriers. Generally speaking, it is not easy for people of one social class to have free access to people of another social class. The lack of free communication between people of different social classes accounts partly for their differences in the way they s

51、peak. What should be noted is that class dialects are not distinct entities. There is only a high correlation between social class and language patterns. There is a greater tendency for the people of one social class to use forms which are relatively infrequent in the speech of those of another soci

52、al class. For example, upper class members tend to use the words in Column A, while others tend to use the words in Column BColumn AColumn BAmericathe StatescakepastryhelpingportionIceice-creamlavatorytoiletlooking glassmirrorpuddingdessertrelativesrelationsrichwealthyRoyaltiesRoyalsscentperfumescur

53、fdandruffsickillsofasetteesspectaclesglasses writing papernotepaperAccent is another important marker of social class. Take for example the pronunciation (or not) of the r sound after vowels. There was a regular pattern: in New York, the higher the social status, the more r sounds, and the lower the

54、 social status, the fewer r sounds were produced. So, the difference in a single consonant could mark higher versus lower social class; in England, the same variable r after a vowel had the opposite social value. Upper middle class speakers in that area tend to pronounce fewer r sounds than lower/wo

55、rking class speakers.One accent which is especially worth mentioning is the British English accent, or more properly the English English accent, which is known to linguists as RP (Received Pronunciation). This accent developed largely in the English public schools, was adopted by almost all BBC anno

56、uncers and taught to non-native speakers learning British pronunciation.RP is unusual in that the relatively very small numbers of speakers who use it do not identify themselves as coming from any particular geographical region. So, RP is a non-localized accent. The RP accent also has very high pres

57、tige. So statusful is this prestige accent that it has become the marker of the upper class. Definitions to ClarifyReceived pronunciation: Received pronunciation is the supposed acceptable standardized pronunciation of the mid 20th Century. It is a non-localized accent, which enjoys high prestige an

58、d has become a marker of upper class.Sociolect: It refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. Its also called social-class dialect.3.1.2.2 Language Variation with Sex: Genderlect Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over 1) In your daily life, have you ever noticed some of the differences in the way males and females speak the same language?2) Compare the following speeches. Which one is probably a male talk and which one is probably a female talk?You leave your bag on the sofa ag