13-14-1 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds.ppt

1、Speech Sounds,2.1 How speech sounds are made 2.2 Consonants and vowels 2.3 From phonetics to phonology 2.4 phonological rules 2.5 Suprasegmentals 2.5.1 The syllable structure 2.5.2 Stress 2.5.3 Intonation 2.5.4 Tone,Speech sounds are sounds that convey meaning. Speech sounds are sounds that are syst

2、ematically used in human linguistic communication.,What do we mean by “speech sounds”?,2.1 Speech production and perception,Human beings are capable of numerous sounds, but not all of them are used systematically in speech. Ones coughs or snores are not speech sounds, because they are not units in t

3、he language system. They do not express ones thoughts or feelings in a systematic way.,Language is first and foremost a system of vocal symbols. (2 media of language: speech, writing) There are two linguistic branches directly related to the study of speech sounds.,PHONETICS 语音学 Phonetics is the stu

4、dy of the production (发音), transmission (传播), perception (感知), description (描写), classification (分类) and transcription (标记) of speech sounds.,PHONOLOGY 音系学 Phonology is the study of sound patterns in a given language. Phonology is language-specific. /pesk/,The process of speech production and percep

5、tion The speech sound is articulated by Speaker A （发音/说出）. then transmitted to Speaker B (传播) and received by Speaker B（感知）.,Three major branches of phonetics Speech Sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phone

6、tics, and auditory phonetics.,Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) Physiological Phonetics (生理语音学),Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced. It is the physiological study of speech sounds. It is also called Physiological Phonetics (生理语音学).,Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) Physical P

7、honetics (物理语音学),Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. It is also called Physical Phonetics (物理语音学).,Auditory Phonetics (听觉语音学) Psychological Phonetics (心理语音学) Auditory phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are perceived by the ear. It is the psychologica

8、l study of speech sounds. It is also called Psychological Phonetics (心理语音学) . Avalanche,2.1 How speech sounds are made,2.1.1 Speech organs Vocal Organs 发音器官,Figure 2.2 The organs of speech (Based on MacMahon, 1990: 7),The organs involved in speech production: the lungs 肺 the trachea trE5ki:E windpip

9、e气管 the throat (larynx 5lAriNks喉, pharynx 5fAriNks咽) vocal folds/cords (声带) the nose the mouth,一般女声要比男声高约一个八度音。 根据测量, 女高音约1.4-1.7公分，女中音约1.8-1.9公分。男高音约1.8-2公分，男中音约2.1-2.7公分，男低音约2.4-2.5公分。 东方人的声带成年男子约1.7至2.3公分，女子约1.2至1.7公分,西方人略为长一些。,The vocal folds /cords,男女人声的差异,声带和体重无关, 但与身高成正比。高个子的人大多唱低音。 声音的高低并不完全

10、由声带的长短宽窄来决定，所以自然歌唱的高低音决定于肌肉筋骨拉动声带的能力，及声带本身的伸缩性如何。 因此人声的差异除先天的生理结构及人声成长的不同外，最重要的是后天训练改变的。 音质和音色是两种不同的概念，音质在成人定型后较难改变，但音色、强弱、力度、音域的高低都可以通过训练来改变和发展的。,The initiator of the air-stream The vocal cords The resonating cavities: The pharynx (5fAriNks 咽) The nasal cavity The oral cavity,Sing an English song,2

11、.1.2 Segments, divergences and phonetic transcription Segments and divergences,The reason for this divergence between sound and symbol may seem to be simple: There are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound. In OE, the relation between sound a

12、nd symbol was much more regular. Some of the sounds, especially the vowels, have undergone changes in the history of English.,Additionally, many English words have been borrowed from other languages throughout history and the irregularity of its spelling is made worse because of such borrowings. The

13、 divergence between spelling and pronunciation becomes greater when we consider the many accents of English used by people from different regions.,Phonetic Transcription is a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way., Phonetic transcription,2013年10月23日星期三,system

14、atic and consistent way.,Phonetic transcription can help bring the spelling and pronunciation into conformity. It serves as an aid in phonetic studies to the description of speech sounds. It can also be used to record the sounds of languages that do not have writing systems of their own.,Because of

15、these reasons, it is necessary to devise sets of symbols that can be used for transcribing sounds in language. Several such systems are in use. We will introduce the notation system of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).,2.1.3 The International Phonetic Alphabet In 1886, a small group of lang

16、uage teachers in France formed the Phonetic Teachers Association. In 1897, they changed the title to its present one - International Phonetic Association. On the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time, the Association devised in 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (both, incidental

17、ly, are abbreviated as IPA).,The idea to establish a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Otto Jespersen (1860-1943耶斯佩森, 叶斯帕森) in 1886. The first version of the IPA was published in August 1888.,Its main principles were: there should be a separate letter for each distinctive

18、 sound; the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears; the alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. These principles continue to be followed today.,ce o a d qg bp i j l t

19、 f r n u m h v wy xz k s,The IPA chart has been revised and corrected several times and is widely used in dictionaries and textbooks throughout the world. The latest version was revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.,The IPA revised to 2005.,Revision,What do we mean by Speech Sounds? What is Phonetics

20、 about? How would you define Phonology? What is Articulatory Phonetics about? What is Acoustic Phonetics about? What is Auditory Phonetics about? What are the Resonating Cavities? What do we mean by Segments? What do we mean by divergences? What is phonetic transcription?,双学位,2.4 Consonants 2.4.1 Co

21、nsonants and vowels 2.4.2 Consonants 2.4.3 Manners of articulation 2.4.4 Places of articulation 2.4.5 The consonants of English,2.2 Consonants and vowels Speech sounds may be classified into two major types in terms of their articulatory characteristics. Sounds produced with obstruction of the air-s

22、tream are called consonants. Sounds produced without obstruction of the air-stream are called vowels.,Generally speaking, a sound segment is either a vowel or a consonant. But some segments are midway between the two categories. they are termed Semi-Vowels or Semi-Consonants.,2.2.1 Consonants,The ca

23、tegories of consonant are established on the basis of the following important factors: Places of articulation Manners of articulation, Manners of articulation The degrees of obstructions (the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract). Places of articulation

24、 The different vocal organs, or more exactly the different parts of the vocal organs which are involved in the production of consonants.,The criteria of consonant description The state of the vocal cords (voiceless / voiced) Places of articulation (8 in English) Manners of articulation (6 in English

25、),/m/ voiced bilabial nasal /h/ voiceless glottal fricative /l/ voiced alveolar (lateral) approximant /r/ voiced alveolar central approximant,Simile Alliteration Repetition Carpe diem 拉丁文 seize the day 及时行乐 /r/ harsh, run, hurry, worry easy; smooth; quiet; silence; /u:/, /:/,2.2.2 Vowels The distinc

26、tion between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. In the production of vowels, there is no obstruction of air as is the case with consonants. Therefore, the description of the vowels cannot be done along the lines of the description of the consonants. Therefore methods for des

27、cribing vowels on some basis other than articulatory were sought in the last century.,The theory of cardinal vowels,Eventually, it occurred to the phoneticians that it would be a way out to establish, on an auditory basis, a set of arbitrary reference points cardinal vowels, so that a given vowel co

28、uld be described in terms of its relation to them. Cardinal vowels are a set of arbitrary reference points established in the description of vowels.,Un oeuf,2013年10月30日星期三,2.2.3 Vowel glides 滑音,Diphthong 5difWCN n. 双重元音, 双元音字, 连元音字 Triphthong 5trifWCN n. 三重元音 -P35,2.2.4 The vowels of RP -p36,The sta

29、ndard pronunciation of Southern British English, known as RP - received pronunciation.,Revision,What is phonetic transcription? How would you define consonants? How would you define vowels? What are the criteria of consonant description? What are the criteria of vowel description? What are cardinal

30、vowels? What does RP mean?,2013年11月2日星期六,2.3 Phonological Analysis,Phonology is the study of the sound system of a given language. Phonology is language-specific.,2.3.1 phonemes and allophones,sound speech sound (phone): /si:/ /sC:/; /ki:/ /kB:/ distinctive sound (phoneme): /s/, /k/, /i:/, /B:/, /C:

31、/ /si:/ - /sC:/; /si:/ - /ki:/ non-distinctive sounds (allophones): /s+/ /s_/; /ki:/ /kB:/ Youngadult Man_ boy+Man+ boy-,2.3.4 Allophones If a sound difference does not cause a meaning difference in a language, then it is non-distinctive. The non-distinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme, a

32、nd are known as allophones.,2.3.5 Co-articulation (协同发音) -37 Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.,For example, if a nasal consonant m precede

33、s an oral vowel a in map, some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel a will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. Similarly, when a is followed by m, as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of a so that it is ready for the following nasal. When such sim

34、ultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process co-articulation.,co-articulation: the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation (逆向/先协同发音). If th

35、e sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation (顺向/后协同发音), as is the case of map. Anticipatory coarticulation effects are far more common than perseverative coarticulation effects.,在连续语音中，前后两音相接较近，就相互影响而产生协同发音现 象。其前后的影响有三种方式： （1）顺协同：前音不变，后音变。 （2）逆协同：后音不变，前音

36、变。 （3）双向协同，前后音都变。 在三十年代早期，美国的哈斯金斯研究所开始用机械的语音合成器作声学参数合成实验，就找出音节中的辅音元音间有过渡段，奠定了后来的协同发音研究的基础。现在知道，不但是在音节中，即在各音节间和各短语间，如果前后两音相接得较紧，也都会产生过渡作用，称为协同发音。 43/was40/print?record=4855 sun N glasses ex . You can N keep them.,Examples in ex . 2-6 show how fricatives and affricates in English may

37、 be assimilated in voicing.,The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech The second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. Examinations of other sounds reveal that devoicing, a process by which voiced sounds become voicel

38、ess, in such contexts does not occur with other sounds (Such as stops/plosives).,Liaison,Not at all. An hour later. Cancer An American bank official A rare opportunity,2.3.6 Broad transcription and Narrow transcription,Henry Sweet made a distinction in his Handbook of Phonetics, between narrow and b

39、road transcriptions, which he called narrow romic and broad romic. 5rEumik n.罗密克音标(Sweet创) narrow Romic严式罗密克音标(Sweet用语) Narrow transcription (Romic) is meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades. Broad transcription (Romic) is intended to indicate only those sound

40、s which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.,Table 2.4 Broad and narrow transcriptions of English words,2.4 Phonological processes, phonological rules and Distinctive Features音位过程、音位规则与区别性特征,Phonological Processes The changes discussed above exhibit phonological p

41、rocesses in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a neighboring sound.,Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have 3 aspects to it: a set of sounds to underg

42、o the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies. We can represent the process by means of an arrow: /v/ f,Our data have shown that this does not only apply to /v/ but also to other fricatives. Therefore, we can make a more general rule to indi

43、cate that voiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments: voiced fricative voiceless/ voiceless,This is a phonological rule. The slash ( / ) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the

44、target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.,Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are also typical phonological processes that can be represented by the following rules : Nasalization ru

45、le -nasal +nasal / +nasal Dentalization rule -dental +dental / +dental Velarization rule -velar +velar / +velar,The initial 3-consonant cluster,squeeze skwi:z street stri:t p l spring sprin s t r screw skru: k w splash spla,Rules: the 1st consonant must be the voiceless alveolar fricative; the 2nd c

46、onsonant must be a voiceless plosive; the 3rd consonant must be a voiced approximant.,Revision,2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description 2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels 2.5.3 Vowel glides 2.5.4 The vowels of RP 2.6.1 Coarticulation 2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions,5. Suprasegmentals,Suprasegm

47、ental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are:,Our discussion so far has been concentrated on the single-line or linear approach of phonology. The syllabic theory is often represented by a tree diagram. Such theories are of

48、ten known as non-linear or multilevel phonology.,2.11 The Syllable Structure,The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK and the coda. In the syllable /mn/, /m/ is the onset, / is the peak, and /n/ is the coda. In English, a word may be monosyllabic (with one syllable, like cat and dog

49、) or polysyllabic (with more than one syllable, like transplant or festival). A syllable must have a nucleus 5nju:kliEs or peak, which is often the task of a vowel.,Therefore, we can divide a syllable into two parts, the rhyme (rime) and the onset. As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the c

50、onsonant(s) after it will be termed the coda. We can thus represent the syllabic structure of the word clasp. The Greek letter (“sigma”) is used to represent a syllable.,A syllable without a coda, that is, a syllable ending in a vowel is an open syllable. And a syllable checked or arrested by a cons

51、onant is a closed syllable. The peak is the essential part, which a syllable must contain, while the onset and coda are margins, which may be absent from it. The peak is usually formed by a vowel, hence the symbol V. But in words such as apple, hidden and rhythm, /1/, /n/ and /m/ also function as pe

52、aks. They are said to be syllabic and symbolized as /1/, /n/, and /m/.,All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable. A syllable with coda is known as closed syllable. In English, there are both closed and

53、open syllables but only tense vowels (long vowels and diphthongs) can occur in open syllables.,Open syllable: bar, tie Closed syllable: bard, tied English Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) Splash sixths Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) When there is a choice as to where to place a c

54、onsonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.,Syllabic Structure English Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C),Differences in syllable structure also exist cross-linguistically. Chinese has the syllable structure CV, VC and CVC or (C)V (C). The Chinese syllable, allows at

55、most one consonant in the onset position and only nasals n, N in the coda for Standard Chinese - Putonghua. Thus the Chinese syllable is represented as (C)V(C).,In English, the onset position may be empty or filled by a cluster of as many as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled by

56、 as many as four consonants. In English there may be at most three consonants before the peak and four after it -CCCVCCCC (as in sixths siksWs). In English, only a limited few consonants can co-occur as three consonant clusters in the syllable initial position. They are: S + / p / t / k / + / r / l / j / w /,2.11.2 Sonority scale响音阶,It is interesting to find that in English consonant clusters in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant combinations. For example, we can have help, lump, pray,