关联理论Relevance Theory.ppt

1、Relevance Theory,Contents,1. Relevance and Cognition,4. Types of Cognitive Effects,2. Relevance Theory: its communicative view,3. Two Principles of Relevance,5. Calculating Cognitive Effects,Formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1

2、986, Relevance Theory, intended to improve Gricean maxims by reducing redundant maxims to one single principle, has arisen heated discussions for years since it was first proposed.,Brief Introduction to Relevance Theory,1. Relevance and Cognition,What sort of things may be relevant?,Intuitively, rel

3、evance is a potential property not only of utterances and other observable phenomena, but of thoughts, memories and conclusions of inferences. In relevance-theoretic terms, any external stimulus or internal representation which provides an input to cognitive processes may be relevant to an individua

4、l at some time.,According to Relevance Theory, utterances raise expectations of relevance not because speakers are expected to obey a Co-operative Principle and maxims or some other specifically communicative convention, but because the search for relevance is a basic feature of human cognition, whi

5、ch communicators may exploit.,When is an input relevant?,Intuitively, an input (a sight, a sound, an utterance, a memory) is relevant to an individual when it connects with background information he has available to yield conclusions that matter to him: say, by answering a question he had in mind, i

6、mproving his knowledge on a certain topic, settling a doubt, confirming a suspicion, or correcting a mistaken impression.,In relevance-theoretic terms, an input is relevant to an individual when its processing in a context of available assumptions yields a positive cognitive effect. A positive cogni

7、tive effect is a worthwhile difference to the individuals representation of the world a true conclusion, for example. False conclusions are not worth having. They are cognitive effects, but not positive ones (Sperber (b) Let Peter identify her intention(a); (c) Let Peters identification of her inten

8、tion(a) can at least partly explain why Peter believes.,Understanding is achieved when the communicative intention is fulfilled that is, when the audience recognises the informative intention. Whether the informative intention itself is fulfilled depends on how much the audience trusts the communica

9、tor. There is a gap between understanding and believing. For understanding to be achieved, the informative intention must be recognised, but it does not have to be fulfilled.,3. Two Principles of Relevance,According to Sperber and Wilson, every aspect of communication and cognition is governed by th

10、e search for relevance. Since the relevance requirement applies to cognition and communication differently, there are two gerenal principles of relevance.,3.1 The Cognitive Principle,Definition: Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance. While human cognition is aimed at th

11、e maximization of the cumulative relevance of the inputs it processes, it does this not by pursuing a long-term policy based on computation of the cumulative relevance achieved over time, but by spontaneous and local choices, between simultaneously available inputs competing for immediately availabl

12、e resources.,Maximal relevance can be defined as follows:,-the more (stronger) the cognitive effects, the relevance (given the same amount of processing effort) -the less processing effort, the greater the relevance (given the same cognitive effects),Cognitive Effects Relevance=- Processing Effort,3

13、.2 The Communication Principles,Definition: Every act of ostensive communication communicate a presumption of its own optimal relevance. Presumption of optimal relevance: (a) The set of assumptions I which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth

14、 the addressees while to process the ostensive stimulus. (b) The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate I.,In the 1995, Sperber and Wilson revise the two clauses as follows:,Presumption of optimal relevance (a) The ostensive stimulus is relevance

15、enough for it to be worth the addressees effort to process it. (b) The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one compatible with the communications abilities and preferences.,Unlike the second clause in the old version, the revised second clause takes into account possible differences in individua

16、ls abilities and preference in communication. Two conditions should be provided to gain the optimal relevance: (a) It is relevant enough to be worth the audiences processing effort; (b) It is the most relevant one compatible with communicators abilities and preferences.,For example: Peter: Ive got a

17、 temperature today. In this sentence, the temperature might be higher than normal so that its worth taking about and the utterance used may be consistent with Peters willingness to state his physical state as a bit unusual, without going so far as to impress others as fussy.,Difference between the m

18、aximal relevance and optimal relevance: For maximal relevance, the greater the relevance, the better (cognitively speaking); the more the cognitive effects, the greater the relevance; the less the processing effort, the greater the relevance; For optimal relevance, there must be a balance between th

19、e gain of cognitive effects and the expense of processing efforts.,To illustrate the difference between the two notions, consider the following examples: Wang: How much do you earn a month? Tian: Two thousand. To explain the cognitive processing of Tians utterance along the line of maximal relevance

20、, we would think that its cognitive effect is that Tian earns exactly two thousands a month because achieving this cognitive effects accords with the requirement of the least effort.,If an utterance is optimal relevance, it must possess maximal relevance first. For example: (a) You are sick. (b) You

21、 have mild flu. (c) You have mild flu, and the 2008 Olympic Game were held in London.,4. Types of cognitive effects According to the definition of relevance, a cognitive effect is a contextual effect occurring in a cognitive system, and a positive effect is a cognitive effect that contributes positi

22、vely to the fulfillment of cognitive functions or goals. Not all cognitive effects are worth pursuing. There are three major types of cognitive effects are identified and elucidated in Relevance Theory.,In general, we refer to the communication principle of relevance whenever Relevance Theory is men

23、tioned. We should also notice that in actuality, not all instances of communication are necessarily optimally relevant. The claims that follows from the relevance principle is that ostensive communicators generally try to be optimally relevant. For pragmatic analysis, we generally assume that the ut

24、terances in question communicate the presumption of optimal relevance, unless there is evidence to the contrary.,4.1 Strengthening The new information may provided further evidence for and therefore strengthen old assumptions. e.g. Peter: Do you also think Mary is generous? Jack: She has invited me

25、to dinner quite a number of times. Jacks utterance is relevant as it provides evidence to Peters existing assumption about Marys generosity.,4.2 Contradiction The new information may provide counter-evidence for some old assumption, and may eventually lead to the abandonment of it. e.g. Peter: Do yo

26、u also think Mary is generous? Jack: She has never invited me to dinner. Jacks utterance is relevant in that it provides contrary evidence to Peters existing assumption about Marys generosity.,4.3 Contextual implication The new information is combined with the old information to yield a contextual i

27、mplication-an implication that is derivable from neither the old nor the new information alone. e.g. Peter: Is Mary a generous person? Jack: She has invited me to dinner quite a few times. The interaction between the new information conveyed Jacks utterance and the retrieved old information, plus th

28、e presumption of optimal relevance, makes the inference possible.,We should notice that the three types of cognitive effects may not be exhaustive of all possibilities. Besides, the interaction between the old information and the new information is vastly diverse and the description of the three typ

29、es is quite general.,5. Calculating Cognitive Effects,Relevance is not only a qualitative notion but a quantitative concept. In the same context, different utterances as inputs may vary in the degree of relevant. Supporse Peter knows he is sick and comes to see the doctor. Imagine the doctor could u

30、se any of the following: a) Youre ill. b) Youve got a cold. c) Youve got a cold and China has a long history.,a) is relevant to Peter because it can strengthen his existing assumption that he is ill. b) is not only relevant, but also specifies a ligh level expectation of optimal relevance. c) is gen

31、erally rejected as an impossible utterance. As rational and efficient information processors, human being tend to allocate attentional resources to information that seems relevant and reward.,When Peter is asked to comment on John, he might respond with any of following: a) He is found of impractical ideas. b) He is found of impractical ideas. Many people say so. c) He is a daydreamer. d) He is a daydreamer. Many people say so.,b) has more cognitive effects than a), because it involves a strengthe