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附录1.1TheNatureofDesignWestartwithabasicassumptionaboutdesignDesignisapurposefulactivityWehaveinmindsomeideaofadesiredstateDesigninvolvesaconsciouseffortToarriveatastateofaffairsinwhichcertaincharacteristicsareevidentTherealizationthatasharpenedpieceofwoodpickedupfromthegroundcanbeusedtopenetrateotherobjectsdoesnotconstituteanactofdesignTherealizationthatifabluntpieceofwoodissharpeneditcanbeusedtopenetrateotherobjects,howeverconstitutesarudimentarydesignactThelatterprocessisessentiallypurposeful,whiletheformerisopportunisticDesignisalsotheprocessoforiginatingsystemsandpredictinghowthesesystemswillfulfillobjectivesWhenwedesignwehaveanendinmind,butthisenddoesnotconstitutethefinalartifactThedesignismerelyadescriptionoftheartifactfromwhichpredictionsofperformancecanbemadeAdesignisthereforeanabstraction,providingadescriptionofanartifactthecanbeinterpretedbysomeotheragentforpurposesofmanufactureorconstruction-1IntroductiontoKnowledge-BasedDesignAdesigncanthereforeconsistofasetofinstructionsorsomeotherabstractionsuitablef0,interpretationandrealizationasaphysicalartifactMorespecifically,designhasbeenusefullydescribedasagoal-directedactivitythatinvolvesthemakingofdecisions(Archer1969)WecantranslatethisdefinitionintotheprocessofproducingasetofdescriptionsofanlatethisdefinitionintotheprocessofproducingasetofdescriptionsofanartifactthatsatisfyasetofgivenperformancerequirementsandconstraintsDesignbeginswiththerealizationofneeddissatisfactionwithexistingconditionsandarealizationthatsomecourseofactionmustbetakenAgoalisset,thepurposeofwhichistoattainastateofsatisfactioninresponsetotheneed,andtheabilitytosetgoalsandplanfortheirattainmentisapowerfulandessentialhumancapabilityWecanevenstriveforgoalsthatcannotberealized,suchasthepotofgoldattherainbowsendEvengrantingthisassumptionabouttheprimacyofgoalsindesign,weareatonlytheedgeofunderstandingwhatdesignisForastart,weoftenfinditspecifythenatureofthedesiredstateGoalsthemselvesaretheproductsofprocessesthatarelittleunderstoodAstrongdeterminantofthegoalswesetisoursystemofvaluestheframeworksforourmodelsofreality,ourappreciationofwhatisworthstrivingforThesevaryfromculturetocultureandbetweenindividualsAndindividualsarenotaversetochangingtheirvaluesystemstosuitchangesinsituationEvenwithinaparticularcultureandgivenaparticulargoalwithwhichmostwouldagreesuchasthepublicgooditisunlikelythateveryonewouldinterpretthatgoalinquitethesamewayDifferentdesignerswouldsetdifferentobjectivesGivenanagreementonobjectives,fewerwouldagreeonthewaytoreachtheseobjectivesFurthermore,goalsappeartobeaproductofwhatispossibleGoalsrarelybehaveasautonomousentities,eachofwhichcanberealizedindependentlyGoalsinteractWeoftencannotknowwhatispossibleuntilwehaveundertakensomekindofexplorationDesignsometimesappearsasanactivityofexploration,inwhichpartialresponsesleadtotheredefinitionofgoals(Bill1987)DesignalsoappearstobeillstructuredinthesensethatthereisnostraightforwardprocesstobefollowedAdesignermaystartwithgoalsandworktowardthedesignofobjectsthatwillsatisfythesegoals。ormaybeginwiththeobjectsandcheckwhetherthepropertiesoftheseobjectsmatchthoseoftherequirements。Thismayinvolvea“topdown”approach,a”bottomup”approach,ofacombinationofapproachesTosolveaproblemofanysizeandcomplexity,manyapproacheswillbeattempted,perhapsinparallelTherealsoappearstobenofixedstartingpointAdesignermayfollowacertainlineormayattacktheproblematdifferentpointsofcourse,goalsarenottheonlymeansofdecidingontheformofanartifactDesignsoftenappeartobearesponsetosomeinvisiblesystemofconventionsasmuchastostatedobjectivesSomeconventions,oftenreferredtoasstyle,Maybepeculiartoindividualdesigners,savingthemfromagreatdealofreinventionButdesignstyleisinevidenceasmuchinthewaycomponentsarefittedtogetherintheoutsideformofthebodyofthecarWemustunderstandhowtoaccountforthisphenomenonincomputeraideddesign12ModelsofDesignHowweaddressthenatureofdesignincomputeraideddesigndependsonthemodelsweemploytodescribedesignInthissectionweconsidertheroleofmodels,alsoreviewingsomeinfluentialmodelsthatassistinbringingdesignandcomputersystemstogetherProblemsariseinattemptingtoformalizedesignComparedwithmanyotherdisciplines,ourunderstandingofdesignisatafledgingstageInthisbookTheSciencesoftheArtificial,Simon(1969)arguedthatsuchathingasthescienceofdesign”ispossible,ifnotyetrealizedIfweacceptthatsomedaywewillbeabletotalkintermsofwellestablishedtheoriesandpractices,thenwemustalsoconcedethatthestudyofdesigniscurrentlyataprescience”phaseThisistheterminologyofKuhn(1970),whoarguesthatasciencemustpassthroughseveralphasesbeforeitconstitutesaformaldisciplineMaturescienceisthatstateofadisciplineinwhichthereisacoherenttraditionofscientificresearchandpractice,embodyinglaw,theory,application,andinstrumentationIfweseekthiskindofmaturity,wecantakeconsolationfromthepatternsetbyotherdisciplinesthathaveblossomedintofull-fledgedsciencesTherearetwomajorapproachestoincreasingunderstandinginaparticulardiscipline:casestudiesandmodelsThecase-studyapproachwasprevalentinsuchfoundlingsubjectsasearlypsychology,priortotheestablishmentofanyappropriateexperimentalmethodCasestudiesareparticularlyprevalentindiscussionsofarchitecturalandengineeringdesignSomedesignphenomenon,suchasthedesignofaparticularbuilding,isobservedandanalyzed,perhapsinanattempttoextractgeneralprinciplesIntheabsenceofacleartheoryofwhatisgoingon,thereisaheavyrelianceoninterpretationThisapproachisalsoprevalentincomputeraideddesignresearch,whereitiscommonfirsttodeviseacomputerapplicationonthebasisofuncertainprinciples,andthenassessthevalueoftheoperationinretrospectThesecondapproachisarelianceonmodelsHereweconsidermodelsaslimitedabstractionsofparticularphenomena,lessambitiousthantheoriesWhereastheoriesattempttoexplainobservedphenomenaandpredictbehaviorsthataresomehowconnecting,modelsarecontentwithexplanationandpredictionwithinasubsetofconnectedInphysicsthereexistawavemodelandaparticlemodelforthebehavioroflightOnitsown,neithermodelgivesawhollysatisfactoryexplanationofthebehavioroflightIndesign,therefore,wemustbecontentwithmodelthataccountfordesignbehaviorTheyenableustoexplainandpredictcertainphenomena,butwemayhavetopositmorethanonemodelandthesemodelsmayappearcontradictory,Inthisbookbothapproachestheuseofcasestudiesandtheexplorationofdesignmodelsareinevidence,thoughwefavorthelatterOneoftheproblemswiththecurrentstateofdesignunderstanding,ofcourse,isthatwearenotevensureifweareontheroadtoamaturescienceWecannotknowforcertainuntilwegetthereSomesaythatwecannotinheritthecredibilityofsciencebyclaimingthatourstudyisaprescienceInthiscasewecanargueformodelsofdesignonlyfromapragmaticpointofviewTheargumentgoessomethinglikethisDesignisahumanactivitythateludesformaldescriptionWewishtousecomputerstoassistinthedesignprocessComputersoperateonlywithformal,repeatable,andrigorouslydefinedprocessesIfwerequireacomputersystemtosimulatesomekindofdesi2nbehaviorthenwemustformulatemodelsimperfectastheymaybeofthedesignprocessThemodelsmayhaveverylittlevalueasdescriptionsofhumanprocessesTheyserveourpurpose,however,iftheyresultinusefulsystemsthatfitintoadesigneromodeofoperationWeshouldnotassumethatthereisaneatdefinitionofwhatconstitutestheoriesofquantumphysics,thereisratherlessagreementaboutscienceitself(Charmers,1982)Thestudyofscienceisnot,initself,ascienceFromthefieldofdesignresearcher,Cross,Haughton,andWalkerhavesuggestedthat,sincethereisnotyetanyuniformunderstandingofscience,itisnotprudenttolooktoascienceofdesignTheybelievethatdesertbelongstotherealmoftechnology,orappliedscienceButweneednotachieveascienceofdesignbeforeourmodelsareusefultousVariousviewsofdesignandtheiroriginswithinthedisciplinesofscience,problemsolving,logic,andlanguagetheoryForourpurposesitissufficienttocalluponthesedisciplinestoprovideanalogiesInsomecasesitishelpfultodiscussthedevelopmentofadesigninthesamewaythatwetalkaboutthedevelopmentoftheoriesinscienceInothercasesitisusefultotreatdesignasaphenomenonexplainableintermsoflogicInstillothersadesignedobjectmaybetreatedadastatementinsomecomplicated,multidimensionallanguagesystemWhetherornotdesignisanyofthesethingsisaninterestingissue,butonethatneednotberesolvedbeforetackingthepragmaticsofcreatingusefulcomputersystemsBeforewesummarizedifferentmodelsofdesign,itisworthreflectingontherelationshipbetweenscienceanddesignWecanmakepredictionsinsciencebytheapplicationoftheoriesTheprocessofpredicationisrelativelystraightforward,