大学英语跨文化交流课件第四章

大学英语跨文化交流课件第四章LEARNINGOBJECTIVESInthischapter,studentswilllearnhowto:Understandthedefinitionofverbalcommunication.Describetherelationbetweenlanguageandculture.Summarizetheverbalcommunicationstyles.Understandthephenomenonoflanguagediversity.Evaluatethewrittencommunicationpattern.ChapterOutlineVerbalInterculturalCommunicationSelf-enhancement/Self-effacementDefinitionofVerbalCommunicationLanguageandCultureVerbalCommunicationStylesDirect/IndirectLanguageasaReflectionoftheEnvironmentLanguageasaReflectionofValuesWrittenCommunicationThinkingpatternsandcultureDifferentCommunicationStylesLanguageDiversityElaborate/Exacting/SuccinctInstrumental/AffectivePersonal/ContextualDialectandSociolectPidginandLinguaFrancaTabooandEuphemismTheMeaningofWordsWhatisverbalcommunicationVerbal:connectedwithwordsandtheiruse.Verbalcommunication:communicationdonebothorallyandinwrittenlanguage.SignificanceofVerbalCommunicationWeusewordstocommunicatewiththeoutsideworld.sharethepast.exercisesomecontroloverthepresent.formimagesofthefuture.VerbalCommunication----Sometimeswethinkaboutthisbuttalkaboutthat.Activity11.TwoJapanesewhoknewsomeChinesewereonedayataBeijingsubwaystation.theysawawarningsignwhichread:小心地滑！Theywereverymuchsurprisedtoseethatnobodyaroundthemwasskating,thoughthefloorwasflatandsomewhatslippery.2.Inalaundry,whenamansawthesign“whenlightflashes,removeclothes”,hetookoffallhisclothes.Studyinpairstheshortpassage,andseewhatyoucaninferaboutlanguage.

LanguageandCulture1.Sapir-WhorfHypothesisWhenanoldEnglishladyhearssomeforeignwords(meaningwater)forthefirsttime,shefeelsthatforeignlanguagesareoddandquiteunreasonable.shesaysthisisjustplainwater,buthowstrangethattheChinesecallitshui(水）,theFrenchcallitdel’eau.OnlyweEnglishgiveittherightnamewater,becauseitisnotingelsebutwater.Readthefollowingfactiousstoryandseewhatyoucaninferabouttherelationshipbetweenlanguage,cultureandthought.Discussinsmallgroups;theideasofothersmayinspireyou.AnalysisOnepossibleinterpretationisthatweareusuallyethnocentric(种族优越感)andjudgethebehaviorofpeoplefromotherculturesagainstthebackgroundofourownculturalandlanguagerules.Onemoreinterpretationmaybethatlanguagenotonlygivesusfreedomtoexpressourselves,butalsotendstoconfineourthoughtstoacertainarea.Outofwhatourlanguageprovidesus,wefeelconfused.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis

Itdealswithrelationshipbetweenthoughtandlanguage.linguisticdeterministinterpretation---Languagestructurecontrolsthoughtsandculturalnorms.linguisticrelativityinterpretation---Cultureiscontrolledbyandcontrolslanguage.

Eg.InArabic,thecamelplayssignificantrolesinpeople’slife,sotherearemorethan40wordsfor“camel”.2.LanguageasaReflectionoftheEnvironment Theenvironmentinfluencestheappropriatevocabulary.Languagereflectstheenvironmentinwhichwelive.Eg.IntheAmazonareasnowisnotapartoftheenvironment;therefore,peopleinthatregiondonothaveawordforsnow.MostAmericansusetermssuchassnow,powdersnow,sleet,slush（稀泥浆）,blizzard,andice.

languageisinfluencedbypeople’sperceptionoftheworld

3.LanguageasaReflectionofValuesLanguagereflectsculturalvalues.

Oneoftheproblemsindealingwithpeoplefromotherculturesisthatwetranslateconceptsfromaforeignlanguageandculturewithwordsthatfitourexpectations.Eg.TimedoesnotplayaroleinNavajolife.Asaresult,theNavajodonothavethedifferentiatedvocabularyconnectedwithtimeandclocks.Eg.ForAmericans“tomorrow”meansmidnighttomidnight,averyprecisetimeperiod.ToMexicans,incontrast,mañanameansinthefuture,soon.3.LanguageasreflectionofvaluesChinesefamily:bigandhierarchical(等级森严）Chinesekinshiptermsreflecttheimportanceofourfamilysystem,elaboratesystemofkinshipterms.祖母、外祖母、哥哥、弟弟、年长（权威moreauthoritiesthan弟弟）长子、长孙（继承财产inheritthemoney,thehouse,etc.theheir)createdifferentassociationsandimages4.TheMeaningofWordsWorddifferencesareobviousinvariouslanguages.Therelationbetweenwordanditsmeaningisarbitrary.Forexle,inChinese,weliveina房子.InEnglish,weliveinahouse.InSpanish,weliveinacasa.InThai,weliveinaban.4.TheMeaningofWords

Sometimesdifferentculturesuseidenticalwordsthathaveratherdifferentmeanings.Theresultscanbehumorous,annoying,orcostly,dependingonthecircumstances.Eg.FortheAmerican,“administration”intheuniversitycontextmeansdepartmentchairordean.FortheFrench,“administration”meansupper-levelclerical(神职人员）staff.Activity:ReadthefollowingmoviestoryTheGodMustBeCrazyandthinkaboutwheredothemeaningsofthewordscomefrom?

InadesertsomewhereinAfrica,Jingo,atribesman,pickedupanobjectdroppedfromapassingplane.Whatwasit?Jingoandfellowtribesmenactivatedtheirwordknowledgeandreachedaninterpretationoftheobject,namelyitmustbesomethingfromtheirGod.Sincekidsalltriedhardtoownitandstartedfighting.whichneveroccurredbefore,thetribalheadthoughtthattheirGodhadsentamessageofsomesorttowarnthemthatsthbadwasgoingtobefallthem.AdecisionwasmadethatJingomustgototheedgeoftheearthandthrowtheobjectaway.Infact,itwasonlyanemptyCoca-Colabottle.

Denotation(指示意义、概念意义)

(theprimary,surfacemeaning,orexplicitmeaning,orconceptualmeaning)Lexicalmeaning

Connotation(隐含意义、内涵意义)(thesocio-culturaland“personal”association,ortheimplicitmeaning,theimplicationofaword)

从事政治、关心政治，特别是以政治为生涯的人(apersonwhosebusinessispolitics)

politician

不讲原则，当面一套，背后一套，能言善辩，言而无信的人(apersonwhodoesn’tusuallykeephispromises,oftencheatsforhisownselfishpurpose)

TypesofthewordmeaningsWhatdeterminestheconnotationsofwords?Culturedoes.TypesofthewordmeaningsConventionalmeaninghasatleasttwokindsofinterpretation.Studythecaseabout终身大事andtrytoidentifythisterm’stwokindsofmeaning.

InaCCTVquizprogramhostedbyWangXiaoya,anAmericanguestwhocouldspeaksomeChinesewastochoosethecorrectmeaningof终身大事fromthefollowingfourchoices;工作，事业，婚姻，生死.Althoughhefullyunderstandtheliterarymeaningofthisterm,hedidn’tworkoutthemeaningweChineseattachtoituntilthehostgavehimsomehint.Whydidhehavedifficultyfiguringouttheimpliedmeaning?Analysis:TheproblemtheAmericanmetisthatheknewtheterm’sdenotation,butnotitsconnotation.Ingeneral,whencommunicationwithsomeonefromone’sownculture,theprocessofusingwordstorepresenttheirexperiencesismucheasierbecausewithinaculturepeoplesharemanysimilarexperience.Theprocessismoreproblematicwhencommunicationisperformedbetweenpeoplefromdistinctculture,becausetheirexperience,beliefs,values,traditions,andthelikearedifferent.

Wordmeaning:equivalenceindifferentlanguages?Exle1:Inthe1990s,thereturnofHongKongtoChinawasaheatedtopicinmanymedia.ButtheChineseterm香港回归hastwoversionsinEnglish.ThetermwhichwasusedinEnglishnewspaperspublishedinchinawas“return”,whileintheWestthechosentermwas“revert”.Forexle:Thereportwasdividedintoseveralparts…ensuringthesmoothreturnofHongKongandpromotingthereunificationofthemotherland.(BeijingReview.Mar.17-23.1997.p.7)HewillofficiallytakeofficeonJuly1,1997,thedayHongKongrevertstoChina.(Times.Dec.23.1996.p.47)Analysis:Besidestheirdenotations,both“return”and“revert”havepoliticalimplications.AccordingtoOxfordEnglishDictionary(1998),oneofthedefinitionsof“return”istherecoveryofsthtakenbyothers,especiallyillegally.“revert”,however,canbealegaltermthatreferstothereturntotheoriginalownerbyreversion.Therefore,inthespecialcontextofHongKongin1997,“revert”hasaspecificpoliticalimplicationthatBritain’soccupationofHongKonganditsreturntoChinawasbasedontheagreementbetweentheBritishgovernmentandtheChinesegovernment.Exle2“红”（red）:usuallyassociatedwithcelebrationsandjoyfuloccasionsinbothculture.*红利、红运、分红、红榜、红包、开门红、满堂红、大红人、走红、红极一时、红得发紫(But红眼病inEnglishisgreeneyed)*红旗、红军、红心、红五星、红袖章、红领巾、红色政权、红色根据地、红色娘子军*red-letterday(holidayssuchasChristmasandotherspecialdays.)*Rollouttheredcarpetforsb.(togivealavishwelcome)*However,redinEnglishalsohassomenegativeconnotations.Forinstance,thethiefwascaughtred-handed.Otherexlesare“getorgointothered”(beindebt).“Red-lightdistrict”(apartofatownwhereonecanhireprostitutes.SothemodernChineseBeijingoperaTHEREDLANTERNSTORYwasoftenmisunderstoodbynativeEnglishspeakers.Exle3“狗”（dog）*狗急跳墙、狗仗人势、狼心狗肺、鸡鸣狗盗、狗头军师、鸡零狗碎、蝇营狗苟*Youluckydog.（你这家伙真幸运）Everydoghasitsday.(凡人皆有得意日）Heworkedlikeadog.Youcan’tteachanolddognewtricks.（上年纪的人学不了新玩意，意思就是新人的学习能力更强，更快接受新事物）Discussion:

Canyoufigureoutthedifferentculturalconnotationsofthefollowingwords?“农民”（peasant）“龙”（dragon）“孔雀”（peacock）FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations1.Termsinonelanguagethathaveequivalents(ornearequivalents)intheotherlanguage.AD=BD,AC=BC(samedenotationandconnotationincultureAandB)

Pigand“猪”Fox,forexle,inbothlanguagesitsdenotationisananimal,anditsconnotationcunning.FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations2.Termsinonelanguagethatfindnocounterpartsintheotherlanguage.AD=BD,AC‡0,BC=0(samedenotation,Awithconnotation,Bwithoutconnotation)

Forexle,inChinesethereare三伏and三九，forwhichyoufindnoequivalentsinEnglish.Englishwordslikedemocracy,science,tank,privacy,brunch,carpool,commuter,splashdown,etc.don’thaveanyequivalentsinChinese.

AD=BD,AC‡0,BC=0

“松、柏、鹤、桃”（pine,cypress,crane,peach）

InChinese,松、柏、鹤、桃standforlongevity.InChinesepaintingsandartdesigns,松and鹤oftenappeartogetherwiththemotto松鹤延年.ButtheirequivalentsinEnglishpine,cypress,craneandpeachdonothavesuchconnotations.Pine,bambooandplumblossomareadmiredinChinabecausetheyarebelievedtopossessaqualitythatishighlyvalued---resistingcoldness.InEnglishtheyarejustplants.“梅、兰、竹、菊”（plumblossom,orchid,bamboo,chrysanthemum）FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations3.Termsintwodifferentlanguagesthatappeartorefertothesameobjectsorconceptsonthesurface,butmayactuallyrefertoquitedifferentthingsorhavedifferentconnotations.AD=BD,AC‡BC(samedenotation,differentconnotation) Forexle,爱人andloverarenotatallthesame.Thewordforperson’sspouseinEnglishissimply:husband,wife,fiancé,not“lover”whichreferstoamaninlovewithorhavingasexualrelationshipwithawomanoutsideofmarriage.AD=BD,AC‡BC

干部and单位aretwointerestingterms.干部ismostcommonlyrenderedinEnglishascadre.Butacadreisnotthesameasa干部。Furthermore,cadreisnotacommonword.ManyEnglish-speakingpeopledon’tknowwhatitmeans;whosewhodoknowpronounceitindifferentways---ithasthreeorfourcommonpronunciations.Othertermshavebeensuggestedassubstitutes:official,functionary,administrator,etc.butnoneoftheseisexactlythesameas干部。InEnglishthereisnosuchgeneraltermas单位torefertoaplacewhereoneworks.Ifyoutranslateitasaschool,acompany,afactoryoranyotherinstitution,itdoesn’tmeanthesameasa单位whichinChinatakescareofalmosteverythingwearetoencounterinourlifeandwork.NoneoftheorganizationsinAmericaorotherWesterncountriesdothesame.

FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations4.Termsinonelanguagethatseemtohaveequivalentsintheother,buttheseso-calledequivalentsareonlypartlyequivalent.

E.g..

AnAmerican(A)attendedherChinesefriend’s(B)wedding.Twoyearslater,thetwometagain.A:Haveyoustartedafamily?B:Oh,yes.Youattendedmywedding,remember?A:Imeanifyou’vehadchildren.Moreexles知识分子andintellectual.

InChina,theterm知识分子generallyincludescollegeteachers,collegestudents,andsuchpeopleasmedicaldoctors,engineers,interpreters----peoplewhohavehadacollegeeducationandmiddleschoolteachers.InmanyChineseruralareas,evenmiddleschoolstudentsareconsidered知识分子.InEnglishspeakingcountries,however,intellectualswouldincludeonlypeopleofhighacademicstatussuchascollegeprofessors,butnotordinarycollegestudents.IntellectualisnotalwaysacomplimentaryterminEnglish.Itissometimesusedinaderogatorysense.玩andplay.AnAmericanteacherwasstunnedwhenmorethanonemalestudentsaidtoher:“Iplayedwithmygirlfriendyesterday.”AccordingtotheAmericanteacher,playheremeanssexrelationship.Itdoesn’thavethesamemeaningasin“playfootball,basketball”etc.FiveCategoriesofCulturalConnotations5.Thingsorconceptsthatarerepresentedbyoneorperhapstwotermsinonelanguage,butbymanymoretermsintheotherlanguage.

InChinesetherearetwosetsofnameszumu/nainai,waizumu/waipoforoneEnglishword“grandmother”.律师.Lawyeristhegeneraltermforapersontrainedinthelawandauthorizedtoadviseorrepresentothersinthelegalmatters.SolicitoranditsAmericanequivalentattorneyusuallyrefertoqualifiedlawyerslegallyempoweredtoactforaclient,asindrawingupcommercialorothercontracts,settlingpropertytransactions,andrepresentingclientsinlowercourtjurisdictions.BarristeranditsAmericanequivalentattorneyarehighlyqualifiedlegalpeopleandusuallyrepresentinthehighercourtjurisdictions.InChinese,however,thereisonlyoneterm

律师。Summary:languageandcultureLanguageisareflectionofculture,andcultureisareflectionoflanguage.Cultureinfluenceslanguagebywayofsymbolsandrulesforusingthosesymbols,aswellasourperceptionsoftheuniverse(themeaningassociatedwiththesymbols).Language,ontheotherhand,wouldseemtohaveamajorimpactonthewayanindividualperceivesandconceptualizestheworld.Case:DragonandBrandingListentothefollowingpassageandanswerthequestions:WasthedragonselectedasoneofthefiveBeijingOlympicmascots？WhatisthedifferencebetweenWesternandChineseassociationswithrespecttothedragon?Accordingtotheauthorof“TracesoftheDragon”,whyisthedragonusedasatotem?Cultureinfluencesthestyleofcommunicationatgreatlevel.Thecommunicationstyleisconcernedwiththeuseoflanguage.VerbalCommunicationStyles1.DirectandIndirectVerbalInteractionStyles

Directstylesareoftenusedinlow-context,individualisticculture.CulturessuchastheU.S.A,England,Australia,Germany,preferthedirectstyle.IntheUnitedStates,peopleoftenusetheexpression“forsure”,“noquestion","withoutdoubt”.Inaindirectcommunicationstyle,whichisoftenseeninhigh-contextandcollectivisticcultures,speakersusuallyhideorhinttheirintentionsduringinteraction.Inhigh-contextcultures,thereisnoneedtotelleverymessage.Trueunderstandingisimplicit,comingnotfromwordsbutfromactionsintheenvironment.ManyAsiancountries,suchasChina,Japan,useindirectstyle.Savingfaceandkeepingharmonyinsocialrelationshipsarehighlyvaluedinthesecultures.1.DirectandIndirectVerbalInteractionStylesInthedirectverbalstyle,statementsclearlyrevealthespeaker’sintentions.

Eg.U.S.Americanstendtouseastraightforwardformofrequest.

Ininterculturalbusinessnegotiationsettings,Americannegotiatorsaremission-driven,andtheyexpresstheiroffersopenly.Theymaysay“let’sgotothepoint”,Theyliketobeopenlychallengedforthenegotiation,andtheythinkitisquitenormaliftheyrunintoconflictwithanypartyconcerned.Intheindirectverbalstyle,ontheotherhand,verbalstatementstendtohidethespeaker’sactualintentions.

Eg.Chinesetendtoaskforafavorinamoreroundabout（绕弯的）andimplicitway.

2.Self-Enhancement（自我显扬）

andSelf-Effacement(谦逊）VerbalStylesTheself-enhancementverbalstyleemphasizestheimportanceofboastingaboutone’saccomplishmentsandabilities.Eg.Intheclassifiedads,Americanadmightbeginwith,“Ahandsome,athleticmalewithagoodsenseofhumorseeksafun-lovingpartner…”

Theself-effacementverbalstyle,ontheotherhand,emphasizestheimportanceofhumblingoneselfviaverbalrestraints,hesitationsandmodesttalk.Eg.Intheclassifiedads,Japaneseadmightread,“AlthoughIamnotverygood-looking,I’mwillingtotrymybest.”DifferentWaysofServingTea3.Elaborate（详尽的),ExactingandSuccinct(简明的）StylesAnelaboratestyleemphasizes

flashyandembellished（美化）language.ThisstyleofcommunicationcanbeseeninmanyArab,MiddleEastern,andAfro-American（美国黑人）

cultures.Anexactingstyle,wherepersonssaynomoreorlessthanisneeded,isusedbyAmericans.Asuccinctstyleischaracterizedbytheuseofconcisestatements,understatements,andevensilence.AsuccinctstylecanbefoundinJapan,China,andsomeNativeAmericancultures.4.PersonalandContextualStyleThepersonalcommunicationstyleemphasizestheindividualidentityofthespeaker.Eg.Englishhasonlyoneformforthesecondperson,thatis,you.Thecontextualstylehighlightsone’sroleidentityandstatus.Eg.Chinese,GermanandFrench,forexle,haveinformalandformalformsofthepronounyou(你/您;du/Sie;tu/vous).5.InstrumentalandAffective(情感的）StyleAninstrumentalverbalstyleissender-basedandgoal-outcomebased.Theinstrumentalspeakerusescommunicationtoachievesomegoaloroutcome.Theburdenofunderstandingoftenrestswiththespeaker.Instrumental-styleusersusuallybelievethatcommunicationshouldendaftersomegoalhasbeenattained.AmericanmenuseinstrumentalstylemoreoftenthanAmericanwomendo.Anaffectivecommunicationstyleisreceiverandprocessoriented.Theaffectivespeakerisconcernednotsomuchwiththeoutcomeofthecommunication,butwiththeprocess.Theresponsibilityofunderstandingrestswithboththespeakerandthelistener.Affectivespeakerscarefullywatchforthereactionsoftheirlisteners.Forexle,Frenchpeopleprefertoestablishamoodorfeeling,underwhichcircumstancesintuitionisrequired.InChina,itisimportanttoengageinsmalltalkbeforeinitiatingbusinessandtocommunicatewhattheygiveorreceive.Todosowouldremindpeopleofimmediatepersonalprofits,whichconflictswiththeConfuciannotionofmutualfaithfulness.VideotimeHenryHiggins,anarrogantprofessorofphonetics,wagerswithnewacquaintance,ColonelPickering,thathecanteachanywomantospeakso“properly”thathecouldpassheroffasaduchess.ThepersonwhomheisshownthusteachingisoneElizaDoolittle,ayoungwomanwithastrongCockneyaccentwhoissellingflowersonthestreet.Elizagoesthroughmanyformsofspeechtraining.Atfirst,shemakesnoprogressbutjustasshe,Higgins,andPickeringareexhaustedandabouttogiveup,HigginssoftenshisattitudeandgivesaneloquentspeechaboutthebeautyandhistorybehindtheEnglishlanguage.Elizabeginstospeakwithanimpeccableupperclassaccent.HigginstakesheronherfirstpublicappearancetotheAscotRacecourse,whereshemakesagoodimpressionwithherstilted,butgenteelmanners,onlytoshockeveryonebyasuddenandvulgarlapseintoCockneyusage.NormsofSocialInteractionFormsofAddressGreetingsandFarewellComplimentsandResponsesGratitudeandThanksInvitationAppointmentandVisitingFormsofAddress1）AddressingInmanyEnglish-speakingcountries,peopleaddresseachotherbyjustusingtheirfirstnames.ThisisparticularlytrueintheUS,whereequalityisgreatlyvaluedondifferentlevelsofsociallife.FormsofAddressReadthefollowingcasesandthinkaboutthequestionsaftereachother.1.InChina,weaddressastrangerwithusingwordssuchas“Grandpa”or“Grandma”,“Brother",or“Sister”.Whydowedososincethatstrangerisnotconnectedtousbyblood?HowdoesthissoundtoanEnglishear?2.WeChineseroutinelyusemanyposition-linkedtitlestoaddresspeople,suchas王经理，马局长，张主任，李医生，etc.DoEnglishnativespeakershavesimilarcustoms?Howdoyouusuallyaddresseachother?GreetingsandFarewellTypicalChinesegreetings a.Oneofthemostconventionalwaystogreetistosayhis/hername,addingatermofrespect:LiXiansheng,Mr.Li,b.“whereareyougoing?”“whatareyougoingtodo?”or“Haveyoueaten?”isnotagenuinequestionforChinese.c.Functionalgreeting“辛苦了”inChinese.Forexle,aninterpretertranslated:您一路上辛苦了shouldbe:didyouhaveagoodtrip/didyouenjoyyourtrip?Ratherthan“Iamafraidyoumusthavehadatiringjourney.”ComplimentsandResponsesReadthefollowingcasesandanswerandquestionsaftereachone.a.AyoungChinesewomanwhowasnewintheUSwascomplimentedforthelovelydressshewaswearing.“it’sexquisite.Thecolorsaresobeautiful!”Howdoyouthinksheresponded?WhatwouldanAmericanwomanrespond?ComplimentsandResponsesb.ACanadianwomanacquaintanceofaChineseartteacheraskedhimtolookoveranarticlethatshehadwrittenaboutChinesepainting.Heagreed,butaddedsomethingpolitely.Whatdoyouthinkhewouldliketoadd?GratitudeandThanksExpressingthanksisuniversallyheldasbeingcivilized,indicatingyourappreciationofthefavor.ThisistrueofboththeChineseandwesterncultures.SomeAmericantouristssaid“thankyou”totheinterpreterwhohelpedthemduringthetour.Theinterpreterreplied,“it’smydutytodoso.”thisisappropriateintheChinesecontext.ButisitappropriateintheEnglishcontext?AppointmentandVisitingAmerica:whetheritistoseeadoctor,aprofessor,afriendandevenarelative,isusuallyarrangedbyappointment.Germany:similartoAmerica.France:neverdropinunannouncedtoahome,nomatterhowwellyouthinkyouknowthehosts.Italy:youcandropinanytimewithoutcallingfirst.LanguageDiversityThenotionofalanguageisnotmonolithic（整体的）

andtherereallyexistmanytypesorvarietiesofthesamelanguage.Somelanguagevariationsresultfromthelanguageuser,thatis,hisorhergeographicalorigin(dialect),orhisorhersocialcondition(sociolect社会方言).However,somelanguagevariationsresultfromthecircumstancesofcommunication,suchaspidgin（在贸易中交往中形成的不同语种的混杂语言）

andLinguaFranca（混合国际商业用语）,taboo（禁忌）

andeuphemism（委婉语）aswellasjargon（行话，黑话）.

Diversity–WHAT?valuesmaritalstatusethnicity/racereligionorbelief

rural/urbanlivingage

upbringinggenderdisabilitylanguageDIVERSITY1.DialectsandSociolectsDialectsrefertogeographicaldifferencesandthesedifferencescanbenational,regionalorlocal.Sociolectsrefernotonlytoone’ssocialconditionbutalsotoone’sstyleaccordingtothecommunicativesituation.Eg.AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish;NorthernEnglishdialectsandSouthernEnglishdialects;LondondialectandManchester

dialect.Eg.So-called“ReceivedPronunciation”inBritishEnglishhasBecomecharacteristicofupperclassspeechinBritaininthe19thcentury.Inaformalsituation,onemightsay“Howdoyoudo,Mr.Mullins?”but,inaninformalsituation,onecouldsay“Hi,Jim”or“How’rethingsgoing?”2.PidginandLinguaFranca(通用语）Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.2007版金山词霸提供的美国传统词典对其的解释为：由两种或多种语言混合而成的一种简化的说话方式，语法和词汇较初等，被用于不同语言者进行交流，不作为第一语言或母语。在熊学亮教授所著《CHINESEENGLISH》一文中，它是一种消极的语言现象，极端例子为难以为英语母语者理解的NOTHREENOFOUR（不三不四）。

不是为了说不同语言的人的交流出现的，而是一个有中国特色的中文语境的交流方式实际使用的仍是汉语语法英语经常以名词或名词性短语，特别是缩略语形式插入汉语语境（作动词、形容词等也不少见）英语的使用通常是正确的，不是CHINGLISH.所以，类似PEOPLEMOUNTAINPEOPLESEA这样的说法并不是本文Pidgin所指的对象。Eg.“Longtimenosee!”isanexleofapidginexpressioncoinedbyearlyChineseimmigrantsintheUnitedStates.新时代的Pidgin（特指中文夹杂英文）

典型性Pidgin语段一例：APEC的记者招待会后，我约了CCTV的朋友和一群MBA、MPA的研究生，讨论中国加入WTO后IT业前景，以及IT业对GDP的影响。随后，我们去KTV，大唱卡拉OK。

普通英文单词、词组。

Cover，“替”的意思。如：“明天你休假谁来cover你啊？”没人说“谁来替你？”原因或许是外企员工比较忌讳说被人“替代”的意思吧。Rotation，本意“旋转”，此处指“在不同部门/区域之间轮换工作”，现在有个说法叫“轮岗”，但会引起歧义。Level，不直接说级别、水平等，对讲求中庸之道，待人接物不伤和气的中国人来说，或许是一种很好的避讳的方式。Presentation，这是个在高校中出现频率也极高的词。就我自身经历而言，所有要求学生做presentation的老师在下达要求时都没用“演示”等正确但不精确的中文翻译。有人推荐用“讲演”这一译法，的确比较贴切，但也并未流行起来。尽管英语原词有四个音节之长，中文翻译通常是两个汉字，但presentation就是赢得了人心。

2003年，上海的一位乘客不清楚机票上写的“PVG”是指浦东机场，按照老习惯到虹桥机场乘坐飞机，结果错过了飞机起飞时间，于是状告航空公司，乘客胜诉。我们不知道，如今的机票有没有做相应的修改，但“洋泾浜”的危害可见一斑。

要求绝对纯粹的语言是不可能的，也是没有必要的。保护汉语，要做的有许多，如推广经典汉语文学阅读。关于洋泾浜的是是非非的讨论进来已越发安静了，时间在证明，这一现象并没对汉语的根基产生破坏作用，因而洋泾浜不是保护汉语运动的敌人。有些洋泾浜词将会得到合适的译名，成为和“幽默”“逻辑”等一样的汉语规范用语，同时，新的洋泾浜词还会出现。网络时代是个变化快的时代，在网络上除了速食文化外，我们也能欣慰地看到国人对于汉语的关注和讨论，有人在提醒，在呼吁，汉语的声音就不会弱下去。所以，让洋泾浜们自生自灭，我们可敬的汉语卫士们不用太操心。ALinguaFrancaisalsousedforcommunicationpurposesbetweendifferentgroupsofpeople,eachspeakingadifferentlanguage.Itisviewedasaninternationalmeansofcommunication.Eg.LatinwasaLinguaFrancaintheMiddleAgesandFrenchbecameaLinguaFrancainthe18thcentury.TodayEnglishisconsideredaLinguaFranca.3.TabooandEuphemismTabooreferstoprohibitionofasetofbehaviorsthatshouldbeavoidedbecausetheyareoffensiveandimpolite.

e.g.

InWesterncountriesmanypeoplecon