1. Deixis指示语

,A: 你说你是小狗我就给你这块糖B: 你是小狗A: 我让你说你是小狗 !B: 我说的就是你是小狗啊A: 你说“我是小狗”!B: 啊 ? 你是小狗 ?,Deixis,Pragmatics chapter 1,1.1 Deixis1.2 Categories of deixis1.3 Deictic center and deictic projection1.4 Different uses of deictic expressions,1.1 Deixis,Deixis indicating, pointing (Greek)DeicticsDeictic wordsDeictic expressionsYehoshua Bar- Hillel 1954,Origin of the term:,Deixis is the first area of study in linguistic pragmatics that has caught the attention of scholars. In 1954, the Israeli philosopher Yehoshua Bar-Hillel wrote an article “Indexical Expressions” (直指表达式). Since then the study of indexicals, or deictics, has always been one of the central topics in pragmatics.,Deixis: the earliest target or first study area of pragmatics, since it directly concerns the relationship between language structure and the context in which it is used.,Deixis belongs within the domain of pragmatics, because it directly concerns the relationship between the structure of languages and the contexts in which they are used.-话语和语境之间的关系是通过指示语而得以在语言结构上反映出来。,deixis refers to words and phrases that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information.,(1) Ill be back in an hour. - Levinson(2) Listen, Im not disagreeing with you but with you, and not about this but about this.(3) Meet me here a week from now with a stick about this big.(4) Arriving at 11:30am tomorrow.,Deictic expression (deictics, indexicals, indexical expressions),pronouns demonstrativessome verbs of motion some adverbs of phrases of place and time discourse connectorsall kinds of linguistic devices containing various kinds of social information,John loves me. me: deictic expression the person who is uttering the sentence: deictic information The meaning of deictic expressions cannot be captured by truth-conditional semantics, and their interpretation must depend on analysis of the context of utterance in which they occur.,Examples of non-deictic use,Jack is a students. He comes from Britain. (anaphora回指 - cataphora后指)A deictic word does not need any antecedent. It can introduce a new referent in the discourse situation, but not in the text or co-text.You can never tell what sex they are nowadays. (everyone)There we go. (idiomatic expression)I did this and that. (idiomatic expression),Examples of deictic use,Can you hear me?You, you and you come here, and you and you go there.,1.2 Categories of deixis,Classification of deixis:person deixisplace deixistime deixisdiscourse deixissocial deixis - Fillmore, 1971,Person deixis,First, second, third person and their respective variations:Vocatives: personal names, titles, kinship terms, forms for occupationsDemonstratives: this, that (when referring to a person),Pragmatic meaning of person deixis （语用意义or 变通用法）,Inclusive-we & exclusive-we What are we supposed to do? inclusive-we: one student asks his classmate, inclusive-of the-addressee 包括谈话对方 e.g. lets exclusive-we: one student asks his teacher 不包含谈话对方,We means I,We are a grandmother. (Margaret Thatcher announced on the steps of 10 Downing Street that her son and his wife had had a baby. She had used what is known as the “royal we”. ),We means I,Traditionally kings and queens of England have used this pronoun to refer to themselves, rather than the more personal I. It gives their utterances a more formal ring and perhaps also suggests that in their role as monarch they are talking for their people as well as themselves.,We means I,As we showed a moment ago In a scholarly article, the author often uses we rather than I, sounding more modest.,We means you,How are we feeling today? When the speaker wants to show his concern and to share the problem with the addressee 咱爸咱妈 咱老爷子身体怎么样？,You: indefinite pronoun in informal situations,My son is very naughty. Once you buy him any toy, he will always break it into little pieces before you know it. 这孩子要我给他买手风琴，一天三番五次地老跟你在这个问题上兜圈子。,The speaker is appealing to the hearers experience of life in general. - Quirk et al,Of course money cant buy you a loving family, but it can buy you a separate bedroom for the children. Neil Kinnock Poverty doesnt cause terrorism. Being poor doesnt make you a murderer. George Bush,This you is derived from the use of what has been called the “formulation of morals and truisms”. This means that you is occasionally employed to reflect upon a kind of conventional wisdom as opposed to actual experience.,we-versus-they dichotomy (我们对他们的二分模式),Robin Tolmach Lakoff (1990) analyzes the “we-versus-they” model from a cognitive perspective. He holds that people tend to categorize things in order to understand the outside world. Those who are different from us are often referred to as “they”.,examples,Should enemies strike our country, they would be attempting to shift our attention with panic and weaken our morale with fear. In this, they would fail. No act of theirs can alter the course or shake the resolve of this country. We are a peaceful people - yet were not a fragile people, and we will not be intimidated by thugs and killers. If our enemies dare to strike us, they and all who have aided them, will face fearful consequences.,They had their moment. They have not led. We will. They had their chance. They have not led. We will. 他们曾有过一显身手的机会，但他们的表现并不出色，我们却能。他们曾有过机会大展鸿图，但他们并未独领风骚，我们能。 - Bushs acceptance speech, 2000,In this example, Bush is using “they” to refer to the Democratic party members, his opponents in the presidential campaign, and “we” to refer to him and the Republican Party, of which he is the chosen candidate. By using this we-versus-they model, Bush is criticizing and attacking his opponents by distancing himself and his party away from his “enemies”.,We-versus-they dichotomies have two useful functions for politicians: they make it easy to hate and mistreat those defined as they, and force us into tighter and closer union us against the world of them out there; us, the bearers of civilization and all its virtues.,this versus that,The speaker may use this for somebody emotionally closer to him, somebody he likes, and that for somebody emotionally distant, somebody he dislikes. I hope she doesnt bring that husband of hers. Hes awful, that Michael.,this versus that,Is this/that XXX? Quirk et al (p.1481) remarks, “Perhaps because of the unfavourable values associated with that, there is some tendency to address the unseen hearer e.g. on the telephone with the question.,It may be that the truly pragmatic basis of spatial deixis is actually psychological distance. Physically close objects will tend to be treated by the speaker as psychologically close. Also, something that is physically distant will generally be treated as psychologically distant.,However, I dont like that. A speaker may also wish to mark something that is physically close, eg, a perfume being sniffed by the speaker as psychologically distant.,In this analysis, a word like that does not have a fixed (semantic) meaning; instead, it is invested with meaning in a context by a speaker. Psychological processes seem to be at work in our distinctions between proximal and distal expressions. (George Yule, 12),The manipulation of deixis in political text,The pronouns politicians use in their speeches are worth examining because they make a significant contribution to the overall effect. Observe the various personal references a politician can employ in a specific context :,Today I intend to reduce taxes by 10%. (first person singular I)Today we intend to raise taxes by a mere. (first person plural we) The president/ government must raise taxes for the long term good of the nations economy. (referring to the position or institution)Today it has been found necessary to raise taxes by 20%. (agentless passive),Pragmatic meaning of person deixis in Chinese:,你让我给你借小说，人家借来了，你又不看。人家又没有说你，干吗那样沉不住气？ （周流溪，2001：298）There is latent pragmatic implication of “disapproval” or “dissatisfaction”.,Time/temporal deixis,Time deixis is mainly performed by time adverbials like now, then, today, tomorrow, week, month, and tense marker of the verb.The reference of the deictic expressions entirely depends on the speech situation, it is decided by point of reference （参照点）.,Terms like today, tomorrow, yesterday are said to be pre-emptive (先用权) in the sense that when they are applicable, the others like Monday, Tuesday will not be used. On Tuesday, one would not usually say: I went to town last Monday. (yesterday ) I am going to town Tuesday. (today) I will go to town Wednesday. (tomorrow),tense as a means of time deixis,Nowadays, linguists make a distinction between “time” and “tense”. “Time” is a universal concept, which every language is capable of expressing, while “tense” (verb form that shows time), is a linguistic concept ,which varies from language to language. 2 tenses in English: past and non-past,Place/spatial deixis,Typical place deixis are place adverbs here, there, in(side), out(side), up(stairs), down(stairs), nearby, far away, opposite, behind, etc. which specify a location relative to the place of a deictic center. It also includes verbs with direction: come, go, take, bring, etc.,The interpretation of place deixis must depend on context. the person on the left of the banker The meaning depends on the perspective. To be clear, we can say: on the bankers left (on your left),Discourse/textualdeixis,Discourse deixis, or text deixis, is similar to what is discussed under the name of cohesion by M. A. K. Halliday.Generally 3 types: A. combined with time deixis: last, next, preceding, following, etc.e.g. in the last paragraph, in the next chapter, the former, the latter etc.,Discourse deixis,B. combined with place deixis, especially this, thate.g. That was the funniest story I have ever heard. I bet you havent heard this story.,Discourse deixis,C. cohesion device: but, however, on the contrary, in conclusion, anyway, actually, so, etc.Discourse connectors vs. ordinary connectivesTheir function is to relate to each other sentences that occur in succession but are not related by some structural means.a. Although he was very uncomfortable, he fell asleep.b. He was very uncomfortable. Nevertheless, he fell asleep.,Discourse deixis is a difficult notion in that its scope is not very clearly identified. “the use of expressions within some utterance to refer to some portion of the discourse that contains that contains that utterance (including the utterance itself)” - Levinson refer to some portion of the discourse?,Social deixis,Social deixis is the use of deictic terms for indicating social status of the participants and their relations. So it is mainly the person deixis that are discussed here again, namely, personal pronouns and terms of address. For example: the royal we: We are a grandmother.,Social deixis,The editorial we in scholarly writing is used not to appear egotistical, or self-concentrated. But when assuming responsibility, writers are not hesitant to revert to the normal usage.e.g. The customary disclaimer that I alone am responsible to the short-comings of this books is particularly appropriate here.,Social deixis,reflecting the social relation between the participants:The second person pronoun: tu/ vous in French, tu/ Vos in Spanish, du/Sie in German, and 你/您 in Chinesevocatives: official name, full name, first name, nickname address terms of individuals and objects: 贵姓，令尊，令爱，大作，玉照formality of a discourse: (classroom) teacher/Father?,Examples,我一边晨练，一边和赵老师聊起了家常。当赵老师得知我的父亲是演奏员，母亲是唱河南坠子的演员，我从小也是跟着父母走南闯北，饱尝戏人之苦的经历后，一下子就跟我亲近了我顿时感到赵老师像母亲一样亲切，赵老师也没把我当外人，也汉林长汉林短地叫起来。我索性改口叫赵老师为赵妈，后来干脆就叫老太太了，赵老师听了很高兴。 肖默 赵丽蓉、巩汉林：戏里戏外“母子”情 文摘报1999年10月31日,Examples,王科长家电话铃响了， 小明拿起话筒，稚声稚气地问：“喂，你找谁？” “请王科长接电话。” “爸爸不在家。” “这个小王，星期天也老往外跑。“对方嘟哝一句. 小明歪头眨眼，“喂，你找王科长还是找小王？我爸爸说了，凡是找王科长的，就说他不在家，凡找小王的，就叫醒他。”,Examples,1848年，大英帝国的维多利亚女王(1819-1901)和她的表哥Albert结婚，Albert喜欢读书，不大爱社交，对政治也不太关心。一次女王敲门找Albert. Albert: “ Who is it?” Victoria:“Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.” Victoria: “Its your wife, Albert.” 话语角色认知和定位。,Examples,谦词：如海道“天缘凑巧，因贱荆去世，都中家岳母念及小女无人依傍教育，前已遣了男女船只来接，因小女未曾大愈，故未及行。”,Examples,敬词他(袭人)见里面黛玉和鹦哥犹未安歇，他自卸了妆，悄悄进来，笑问：“姑娘怎么还不安歇？”黛玉忙让：“姐姐请坐。”,1.3 Deictic center and deictic projection,In general, deixis is used in an egocentric way. That is, unless otherwise stated, (i) the central person is the speaker, (ii) the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance, (iii) the central place is the speakers location at utterance time,(iv) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance, (v) the social center is the speakers social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative S. Levinson 1983: 64,So the first person pronoun I (my, me), refers to the speaker, no matter who hears or reads it. Violating this rule would result in comic effect, as in:,Example,A Hebrew teacher discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife. The note read: “Send me your slippers with this boy”.,When the student asked why he had written “your” slippers, the man answered: “Fool! If I wrote my slippers, she would read my slippers and would send her slippers. What could I do with her slippers? So I wrote your slippers, shell read your slippers and send me mine.”,Although person deixis is reflected directly in the grammatical categories of person, it may be argued that we need to develop an independent pragmatic framework of possible participant-roles, so that we can see how, and to what extent, these roles are grammaticalized in different languages.,Deictic projection,However, in actual speech, the egocentricity may be violated. (as in a long-distance call between London and New York)-Good morning! -Good evening! -We are coming to London,We are going to New York next week . We are coming to New York next week. (the center of discourse may be shifted to the addressee. ) This phenomenon, the speaker projecting himself into a deictic context centered on the addressee, is known as deictic projection.,Deictic projection,Likewise, we often say: come in, come here, / go away, go there. But “I am coming”. (when someone is calling you a little distance away) This deictic projec