转语言学7名词解释.doc

转 语言学7 名词解释1.80.What is an alphabet?What is asyllabary?Analphabetrefers to the letters or signs representing speech sounds used in writing alanguage,arranged in aconventional order.Asyllabaryrefers to aset or table or system of written characters representing syllables rather than individual sounds.1.81.What is agrapheme?What is orthography?(1)Agraphemeis the minimal constructive unit in the writing system of alanguage.The English grapheme Ais represented by A,a etc.(2)Orthography means correct spelling,spelling rules or attempts to improve spelling.1.82.What is reference?Reference,as far as writing is concerned,means that in asound writing system the graphemes and the phonemes are expected to build up and to keep up co-reference.For instance,the Reference of the English grapheme Bgenerally isband that of the grapheme Xisks.The problem with reference is that more than one phoneme can be represented by one single letter or grapheme.The grapheme O,for example,can represent its its different corresponding phonemes as in：so,money,together,sob.For reference used in the sense ofsenseormeaning,place refer back to 3.What is affixation,conversion and compounding?(1)Affixationis the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base(root or stem).It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation method in the English language and some other European languages.Prefixationmeans addition of aprefix to make anew word,whilesuffixationmeans adding asuffix to aword.The wordunfaithfulis result of both prefixation and suffixation.(2)Conversion(called sometimesfull conversion)is aword-formation process by which aword is altered from one part of speech into another without the addition(or deletion)of any morpheme.Partial conversionis also alteration when aword of one word-class appears in afunction which is characteristic of another word-class,e.g.,the wealthy(=wealthy people).(3)Compoundingis so complex aword-formation process as far as English is concerned that there is no formal criterion that can be used for the definition of it,though it may mean simply that two words or more come together used as one lexical item,likedustbin.1.84.What is blending,abbreviation and back formation?(1)Blendingis arelatively complex form of compounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root,or by joining the initial parts of the two roots,e.g.,smogsmoke+fog,boatelboat+hotel,etc.(2)Abbreviation,also called in some casesclipping,means that aword that seems unnecessarily long is shortened,usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it,e.g.,telephonephone,professorprof.,etc.Broadly speaking,abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization,e.g.,World BankWB,European Economic CommunityEEC,etc.Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies,to be read like one word,e.g.,radio detecting and rangingradar.Test of English as aForeign LanguageTOEFL,etc.(3)Back-formationrefers to an abnormal type of word-formation where ashorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from alonger form already present in the language.It is aspecial kind of metanalyais,combined with analogical creation(see 1.85),e.g.,editoredit,enthusiasmenthuse,etc.1.85.What is analogical creation?What is borrowing?The process ofanalogical creation,as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation,refers to the phenomenon that anew word or anew phrase is coined by analogy between anewly created one and an existing one.For example,marathonappeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words astelethon,talkthon,etc.Analogy may create single words(e.g.,sunrise-moonrise,earthrise,etc.；earthquake-starquake,youthquake,etc.)and phrases(e.g.,environmental pollution-sound pollution,air pollution,cultural pollution,etc.).Borrowingmeans the English language borrowed words from foreign languages,which fall in four categories：aliens,denizens,translation-loans and semantic borrowings.Aliensare foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes,i.e.,morphological and phonological features,e.g.,elite,coup dtat,coup,etc.(from French).Deniens,also foreign words,have transformed their foreign appearance,i.e.,they have been Angolcized(or Americanized),e.g.,get(a Scandinavian borrowing),theater(a French loan),etc.Hybridsare also denizens,because they are words made up of two parts both from foreign soil,such associology(socio-from French and-logy from Greek).Translation-loansare words imported by way of translation,e.g.,black humorfrom French(humor noir),found objectform French,too(object trouve),etc.Finally,se mantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence of language or languages other than the source tongue.For example,giftmeanthe price of awifein Old English(450-1150AD),and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning ofgift or presentof the Scandinavian termgipt,it meant and still meansgiftin the modern sense of it.1.86.What is assimilation,dissimilation and metathesis?Assimilationrefers to change of asound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is calledcontactorcontiguousassimilation.The assimitative processes at word in language could be explained by thetheory of least effort,i.e.,in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering asequence of sounds.Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often.In expressions such asimmobile,illegal,etc.,the negative prefixes should be or have beenin-etymologically.Dissimilation,opposite of assimilation,is the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another sound,so that the sounds become less alike than expected.As there are two sounds in the Latin wordperegrines,for instance,the first segment had to dissimilate intol,hence the English wordpilgrim.Metathesisis aprocess involving an alteration in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had origina lly been aperformance error,which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.For instance,the wordbirdwasbirdin Old English.The wordaskused to be pronouncedaskin Old English,as still occurs in some English dialects.By Zhang Zuchun 2001/12/30胡壮麟语言学教程课后答案Annie2005-05-09 18：19 Define the following terms：1.design feature：are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function：the use of language tocommunicate,to think,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic：a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pikes distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many,as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic：a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pikes distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of aspeech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigators ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic：a kind of description which takes afixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic：study of alanguage is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive：the study of alanguage is carried through the course of its history.8.prescriptive：a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.9.descriptive：a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10.arbitrariness：one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11.duality：one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12.displacement：one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present cin time and space,at the moment of communication.13.phatic communion：one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14.metalanguage：certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15.macrolinguistics：he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguis tics,et 16.competence：language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17.performance：the actual use of language in concrete situation.18.langue：the linguistic competence of the speaker.19.parole：the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20.Articulatory phonetics：the study of production of speechsounds.21.Coarticulation：a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22.Voicing：pronouncing asound(usually avowel or avoiced consonant)by vibrating the vocal cords.23.Broad and narrow transcription：the use of asimple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription；the use of asimple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription；while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24.Consonant：are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25.Phoneme：the abstract element of sound,identified as being distinctive in aparticular language.26.Allophone：any of the different forms of aphoneme(eg.th is an allophone of/t/in English.When/t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated t.Both th and tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.27.Vowl：are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.28.Manner of articulation；in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation：in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30.Distinctive features：a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31.Complementary distribution：the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32.IPA：the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong anumber of revisions.IPA is acomprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33.Suprasegmental：suprasegm ental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,and intonation.34.Suprasegmental：aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35.morpheme：the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or poundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection：the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix：the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39.derivation：different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40.root：the base from of aword that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph：；any of the different form of amorpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/in dogs and as/iz/in classes.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem：any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43.bound morpheme：an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g.the plural morpheme indogs.44.free morpheme：an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme：A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of aword(e.g.dog in the manger)46.lexicon：a list of all the words in alanguage assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word：word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48.lexical word：word having lexical meanings,that is,those which refer to substance,action and qua lity,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class：a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50.blending：a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only aslight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend：a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed,but the meaning is fully borrowed.53.leanshift：a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym：is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has aheavily modified headword.55.loss：the disappearance of the very sound as amorpheme in the phonological system.56.back-formation：an abnormal type of word-formation where ashorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from along form already in the language.57.assimilation：the change of asound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.contactorcontiguousassimilation.58.dissimilation：the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology：a change in form of aword or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous 60.category：parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord：also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in asyntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62.syntagmatic relation between one item and others in asequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation：a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at aparticular place in astructure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis：the analysis of asentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction：one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head,of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as aheaded construction.66.exocentric construction：a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure：the abstr act representation of the syntactic properties of aconstruction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or averb and its object.68.surfacte structure：the final stage in the syntactic derivation of aconstruction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.69.c-command：one of the similarities,or of the more general features,in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for ernment and binding theory：it is the fourth period of development Chomskys TG Grammar,which consists of X-bar theme：the basis,or the starting point,of the municative dynamism：the extent to which the senten