英语课件Chapter6 Lg and cognition.ppt

Chapter 6 Language and cognition 6.1 What is cognition? 1. Jean Piaget commonalities (Lg the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of lg; lg acquisition (in children) how the child comes to understand and speak the lg of his community. 2. processes of lg acquisition: (1) Holophrastic stage (first year) a. lg sound patterns b. phonetic distinctions in parents lg c. one-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines (two ma year), using (2) Two-word stage (around 18 m): vocabulary and syntax e.g. I sit, all wet, our car, papa away (3) Stage of three-word utterances word order e.g. Give doggie paper./ Tractor go floor. (4) Fluent grammatical conversation stage (before 3 years) Increasing sentence length, syntactic types, embedding one constituent inside another (Give big doggie paper.) 6.2.2 Lg comprehension more function words (telegrams missing function words like of, the,and inflections like ed, -ing, but 90% sens. before 3) All parts of all lg are acquired before 4. 3. mental lexicon: infor. about properties of words, retrievable when understanding lg e.g. morphological rules to decompose rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures-store and access it as a unit or word. -frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances Connectionism: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love. Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones. 4. processes of lg comprehension: (1) word recognition The cohort model by Marslen-Wilson in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise. Race model: Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal; Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. How do listeners comprehend lg? (1)Listeners kg of lg and its patterns facilitates perception in some ways.( /tl/ to identity phonemes and word boundaries.) (2) They use kg that English words are often stressed on the first syllable to help parse the speech signal into words. (3) Readers use the clues to morphological structure that are embedded in orthography in reading the printed words. (reprintrevive) (2) comprehension of sentences Serial models propose that sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a lgs grammar with remarkable speed. It describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant. Parallel models emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. It describes how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence. Structural factors in comprehension: Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Psycholinguists have proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. Minimal attachment: the “structurally simpler”- structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. e.g.The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her. At first, readers interpret it as the DO of claim or the subject of belongs, which disambiguates the sentence. Readers were disrupted when they had to revise this initial interpretation to the one in which the inheritance is subject of belongs. They described the readers as being led down a garden path because the DO analysis is structurally simpler than the other possible analysis. Some examples of garden path sentences: (1) The horse raced past the barn fell. (2) The man who hunts ducks out on weekends. (3) The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi. (4) Fat people eat accumulates. Lexical factors in comprehension: The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. e.g. The salesman glanced at a/the customer The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeanswith suspicion/ripped jeans. . (3) comprehension of text Resonance model: information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it. 6.2.3 Lg production 1. various aspects of process of lg production: Conceptualization and linearization Grammatical and phonological encoding, Self-monitoring, self-repair, gesturing during speech 2. Spoken lg production: (1) Access to words a. conceptualization: what notion to express (“the baby”, “he”) b. word selection: a syntactic word unit-a competitive process c. morpho-phological encoding: retrieval of morphemes to the word- target words (2) Generation of sentences Conceptual preparation deciding what to say, a global plan Word retrieval and application of syntactic kg Processes of syntactic structure: a. Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions, such as subjects, verb, or DO b. Positional encoding: using retrieved lexicon- grammar units and functions assigned to generate syntactic structures that capture the dependencies among constituents and their order. (S + V. +DO/IO) (3) Written lg production Similar to spoken language. Orthographic form instead of phonological form. However, phonology plays an important role in this process. (“phoque” (seal) or “pipe”) The time of writing the former is longer. Writers have more time available for conceptual preparation and planning. 6.3 What is cognitive ls? Cognitive is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. It is an approach to language that is based on human experiences of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize the world. 6.3.1 Construal landmarkground of a moving fogure. -distinguishing the static and dynamic figure-ground relations Ex.6-6 a. Theres a catfigure on the matground b. Batmanfigure was standing on the roofground c. Wetrajector went across the fieldlandmark d. Hetrajectorm going to Londonlandmark (3) Perspective/Situatedness It generally depends on two things: a. where we are situated in relation to the scene were viewing. b. how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. Ex. 6-7 a. My bike is in front of the car. b. My bike is behind the car. Deixis involves lc forms that point at sth. from the speech situation. (thatthis for distance and proximity) person, social, texual/discursive deixis 6.3.2 categorization The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences; A major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge; Allows us to relate present experiences to past ones Three levels: basic level superordinate level subordinate level. (1) Basic level: culturally salient to fulfill our cognitive needs the best, likes dogs differs cats. It is the most inclusive level (at which there are characteristic patterns of behavioral interaction); for which a clear visual image can be formed; at which part-whole information is represented; used for everyday reference. (2) Superordinate level: the most general one. Its categories are less good ones than basic level ones, with its members distinct from neighboring ones, but with- in category resemblance relatively low; have fewer defining features; Immediate superordinates of basic level ones often have a single attribution to a higher one; names of this category are often mass nouns when basic ones are count nouns. (3) Subordinate level: morphologically complex with composite forms like rain coat, apple juice,Theyre less good than basic, because members resemblance but low distinctiveness from neighboring ones; less informative relative to immediate superior categories; often polymorphemic with modifier-head 6.3.3 Image schema Mark Johnson (1987) defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. (1) A center-periphery schema It involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core, like the structure of an apple, (2) A containment schema It involves a physical or metaphorical boundary, enclosed (excluded) area or volume. (3) A cycle schema It involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes: a starting point, a progression through successive events without backtracking, a return to the initial state The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline, like days, weeks, (4) A force schema It involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes a source and target of the force, a direction and intensity of the force, a path of motion of the source and/or target, a sequence of causation, like an attraction schema, a balance one, (5) A link schema consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them, like “A child holding her mothers hand” (6) A part-whole schema involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts. (7) A path schema involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points. (8) A scale schema involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, and consists of any of the following: a closed- or open-ended progression of amount; a position in the progression of amount; one or more norms of amount; a calibration of amount. (9) A verticality schema involves “up” and “down” relations, like standing upright, 6.3.4 metaphor 1. It involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is described in terms of a target domain (experience being described by the metaphor) and a source domain (means that we use to describe the experience). 2. Lakoff to butcher the cow ACTION FOR AGENT: writer, driver INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION: to ski, to hammer ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT: pencil sharpener; screwdriver OBJECT FOR ACTION: to blanket the bed; to dust the room ACTION FOR OBJECT: the best bites; the flight is waiting to depart RESULT FOR ACTION: to landscape the garden ACTION FOR RESULT: the production; the product MANNER FOR ACTION: to tiptoe into the room MEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezed the tissue off the table. TIME FOR ACTION: to summer in Paris DESTINATION FOR MOTION: to porch the newspaper INSTRUMENT FOR AGENT: the pen for “writer” (ii) Perception ICM. Perception plays such an outstand role in our cognitive world that it merits an ICM of its own. Since perceptions may also be intentional, the Perception ICM may cross-classify with the Action ICM. THING PERCEIVED FOR PERCEPTION: There goes my knee for “There goes the pain in my knee” PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEIVED: sight for “thing seen” (iii) Causation ICM. Cause and effect are so closely interdependent that one of them tends to imply the other. Moreover, they probably account for the fact that people often confuse causes and effects. In principle, the causation ICM may give rise to reversible metonymies: CAUSE FOR EFFECT: healthy complexion for “the good state of health bringing about the effect of healthy complexion” EFFECT FRO CAUSE: slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road” (iv) Production ICM. It involves actions in which one of the participants is a product created by the action. The production of objects seems to be a particularly salient type of causal action. PRODUCTION FOR PRODUCT: Ive got a Ford for “car” INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCT: Did you hear the whistle? For “its sound” PRODUCT FOR INSTRUMENT: to turn up the heat for “the radiator” PLACE FOR PROCUCT MADE THERE: china, mocha, camembert (v) Control ICM. It includes a controller and a person or object controlled. It gives rise to reversible metonymic relationships: CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED: Nixon bombed Hanoi. CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) Possession ICM. The possession ICM may lead to reversible metonymies: POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSED: Thats me for “my bus”; I am parked there for “My car” POSSESSED FOR POSSESSOR: He married money for “person with money” (vii) Containment ICM. The image-schematic situation of containment is so basic and well-entrenched that it deserves to be treated as an ICM of its own among locational relations. -CONTAINER FOR CONTENTS: The bottle is sour for “milk” CONTENTS FOR CONTAINER: The milk tipped over for “the milk container tipped over” (viii) Location ICMs. Places are often associated with people living there, well-known institutions located there, events which occur or occurred there and goods produced or shipped from there. Hence, we find the following metonymies: PLACE FOR INHABITANTS: The whole town showed up for “the people” INHABITANTS FOR PLACE: The French hosted the World Cup Soccer Games for “France” PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Cambridge wont publish the book for “Cambridge University Press” INSTITUTION FOR PLACE: I live close to the University. PLACE FOR EVENT: Waterloo for “battle fought at Waterloo” EVENT FOR PLACE: Battle, name of the village in East Sussex where the Battle of Hastings was fought. (ix) Sign and Reference ICMs. They lead to metonymies cross-cutting ontological realms. In sign metonymy, a (word-)form stand for a conventionally associated concept; in reference metonymies, a sign, concept or (word-)form stands for the real thing. WORDS FOR THE CONCEPTS THEY EXPRESS: a self-contra