论文文件(学生参考.doc

英语毕业论文工作文件（学生参考）实例与评语此文件包括一篇压缩后的优秀论文和开题报告的部分章节。编者就论文写作中的常见问题和开题报告中的引证方法写了简短的评语，供参考。注：此文是由一篇5000多词的论文压缩而成。文本框内的文字是评语。一、论文Theories and Training Methods of Speed ReadingThesis Statement: The training methods of phrase reading, column reading, skimming, scanning and reading accelerator, developed for overcoming double abstraction, narrow eye span and some other bad reading habits, can effectively enhance readers reading speed without hurting their comprehension.1、 此文的论点陈述句（thesis statement）并不是简单地说：“This paper is to explore the theories and training methods of speed reading”; 相反，它明确地表述了作者对论文题目所示的论题进行探讨所得出的结论。高质量的论点陈述句都应具有这一特征。2、 论点陈述句所表达的思想首先出现在“Introduction”的最后一段；在“Conclusion”部分，这一思想又一次得到强调。可见，此文结构严谨。读者可仔细阅读这两部分，验证一下情况是否如此。Outline1、 此文的提纲风格是“标题提纲（topic outline）”，不含任何句子形式的条目。2、 每一条目与论文中的标题严格对应。3、 每一条目只有第一个词汇的首字母大写，其它小写。（在实际写作中，若需用专有名词，则仍需大写。）4、 论文的结构与层次全部用阿拉伯数字表示。1. Introduction: fast reading and its training Fast reading and its benefitsTraining and its feasibility2. Theories of fast readingDouble abstractionSpan of recognition Comprehension and reading speedReading efficiency and flexibility3. Some factors affecting reading efficiencyInefficient eye movementExtra body movementPrevious knowledgeConcentration 4. Training methods for reading fasterReading by phrasesColumn readingSkimmingScanningReading accelerator5. Conclusion1. Introduction: speed reading and its training1.1 Speed reading and its benefitsReading, one of the four language skills, is the most important way to get knowledge. The strong reading ability is essential for people to go ahead in this information explosion age. Students have to read different materials in different subjects to meet graduation requirements; workers have to read books relevant to their crafts to improve their skills; businessmen have to read various reports to make better decisions. In daily life, people read newspapers, magazines, stories, etc. to improve the qualities of their lives. Consequently, they need to read and to do it fast as well. 请注意上一段的段落结构。第一句引入主题，第二句是“Topic Sentence”，其它都是“supporting sentences”。严谨的结构表明作者清晰的思路。Speed reading is beneficial. Miller and Steeber (1985) think the best answer to the question “why do we have to read fast?” should be to save time. A simple arithmetic calculation can illustrate the benefits of increased reading speed. 1 week1 month1 year10 yearsSlow reader150 w.p.m.3/4 book3 books36 books360 booksFair reader250 w.p.m.5/4 books5 and 1/2 books66 books660 booksGood reader350 w.p.m.7/4 books7 and 1/2 books90 books900 books(Fry, 1963, p. 3)注意上一段落中的蓝色文字。第一处是文中提到作者的姓，但没有直接引语的引证方法。在第二处，文中没有提到作者的姓，但引用了“Fry”的表格，其引证方法是不同的。此段两个引证标注分别对应于“References”中的第四条和第一条。只有在论文中有引证标注的作品才能在“References”中出现，这是论文写作中须严格遵守的一条规则。In the chart, Fry (1963) assumes that the three kinds of readers read the same books with the same amount of time every day. A fair reader, with a speed of 250 w.p.m., finishes one and a quarter of a book in a week, while a good reader, with a speed of 350 w.p.m., goes through one and three quarters of books. Then, a fair reader reads two books less than the good reader in a month, 24 books in a year, and 240 books in 10 years. What a huge difference! The chart very clearly demonstrates the benefits of speed reading. 1.2 Training and its feasibilityAccording to Fry (1963), one of the major methods for improving both speed and comprehension is to set the students to work through a series of timed reading passages followed by comprehension questions. He explains that when students are relaxing at home, they do not read as rapidly as they do in class under test conditions. In one of his experiments, whether the students are high school seniors or senior management executives, all of their reading speeds, after a ten-week course, can be increased by an average of 100%. That is to say, the class average roughly doubles.Secondly, the improvement of speed reading ability has nothing to do with ages or sex. If a student starts at between 160 and 280 w.p.m., he can end at between 340 and 500 w.p.m. Moreover, training in one type of reading material can help to improve reading of other types of material, and reading speed training in one language helps the students to improve their reading in another language. Yu (1988) did an experiment in China and found that there was no relationship between the improvement of speed reading ability and the students sex or ages. In her opinion, everybody can enhance their reading speed. 注意上一段落中的蓝色文字，它们表示了作者引用了参考文献第七条喻爱菊的著作。因作者的姓出现在正文中，所以用汉语拼音。As shown above, speed training is essential, beneficial, and feasible for everyone. Therefore, it is significant to explore its theories and training methods. The theories of double abstraction, span of recognition, the relationship between comprehension and reading speed, reading efficiency and flexibility explain why reading can be fast without hurting comprehension. And the methods developed on the basis of these theories, that is, phrase reading, column reading, skimming, scanning and reading accelerator, can help reader fulfill this purpose. Equipped with the theories and aided with the above training methods, everyone can increase their reading speed and achieve satisfactory comprehension. 上一段落，即“Introduction”的最后一段，所表达的思想与论点陈述句对应。2. Theories of speed readingThere are five aspects of the theories of speed reading. A full understanding of them will enable teachers to produce better training methods adjusting to students levels and needs. 2. 1 Double abstractionEnglish is an alphabetic language. The letters of a word stand for a sound, and the sound in turn represents an idea. So there is an interesting aspect of reading: the “double abstraction”.Fry (1963) gives an example. The letters “dog” represents the sound a speaker makes when he pronounces the word loud. So when one makes the sound “dog”, he is using the sound as a complete abstraction. When the letter “dog” is printed on a page, another system of symbols is being used: the system of alphabet symbols. “Hence, a printed word is a group of visual symbols which stand for a speech symbol which stands for an idea” (Fry, 1963, p. 40). 此例为直接引语的引证方法。In reading, the reader is dealing with two sets of abstractions. However, efficient readers are able to look at the printed symbols and get the idea directly without going through the sound stage. This way of reading highly enhances a readers reading efficiency.2.2 Span of recognitionWhen a good reader is reading, his eyes make a series of short jerky movements. Each time the eyes stop, a “fixation” is completed, and they see a certain span of material, which is called “the span of recognition” (Fry, 1963, p.17). Since the fixation-time is constant, the only other variable to increase reading speed is the amount of material a person sees during a fixation. According to Fry (1963), good readers actually see two or three words in a fixation, while poor readers see one word or less. 直接引语即使是一个单词或短语 当然这一定是个关键词语 也要标明页码。When readers see two or three words as a group, they see them as a unit of meaning or a phrase. Therefore, a reader should look at the inter-relationship of words in such units as phrases, or even in sentences and paragraphs. Good readers perceive words as groups. As one experiment shows, readers can raise twice as much as their original reading speeds after taking the training in reading larger units of language (Fry, 1963). 2.3 Comprehension and reading speed According to Smith (1982), comprehension is relating visual information to nonvisual information. The former means the printed information before eyes, and the latter the knowledge we have stored in the brain to make sense of the visual information. That is to say, to comprehend, readers have to find the interrelationship between the former knowledge in their brain and the information in front of the eyes. However, the former knowledge is stored in our “long-term memory” and it is not “constantly accessible” (Smith, 1982, p.48). We have to tap one of the interrelationships to find that out. Moreover, the previous knowledge is stored in units of meaning in our brain. So visual information received by the brain in meaningful units helps it to tap the interrelationship in mind. In the opinion of Fry (1963), to speed up reading is to read in bigger units of language, like phrases. Coincidently, it is the way how knowledge is stored in mind. So, when a reader reads in bigger units, he can easily relate that visual information to his nonvisual information. In other words, he comprehends more easily. So, reading faster by taking in bigger units of information will help the brain to comprehend more easily. Thus, to achieve better comprehension, “reading must be fast” (Smith, 1982, p.38). 文章涉及到阅读理论的方方面面，但作者始终围绕“reading speed”。可见，这篇论文主题明确、重点突出。2.4 Reading efficiency and flexibilityA rough measure of reading efficiency might be done by multiplying speed by a comprehension rate (Fry, 1963). If a reader reads 200 w.p.m. and gets 100% comprehension, his reading is 200 w.p.m. efficient. If we compare the 70% comprehension with higher comprehension, we can see the relationship between comprehension and efficiency. For example, a reader who reads 200 w.p.m. with 100% comprehension gets 200 w.p.m. efficiency. But a reader who reads 400 w.p.m. with 70% comprehension gets 280 w.p.m. efficiency. We can see that the latter has a higher reading efficiency. According to McWhorter (1987), “the ability to adjust your reading rate and methods to suit the type of material you are reading and your purpose for reading is called reading flexibility” (p.5). In our real life, 100% comprehension is rarely demanded. For most reading, we read for ideas, not for specific words written on the page, and 70% comprehension is acceptable (Fry, 1963). We usually do not need to get a full comprehension of a story by reading it word by word unless we want to make a critical comment. Study technique, which students need to master, is to read the material once rapidly and then go back over it to pick up more necessary details. In other words, the best reading efficiency is not always the highest; it depends on the readers purpose and practical needs. Fry (1963) comments that poor readers read everything in the same slow speed. They are not flexible in reading. 3. Some factors affecting reading efficiency3.1 Inefficient eye movementMost people erroneously believe that they should read word by word. However, this would cause “tunnel vision” (Mackworth, 1965, P. 67), which is very similar to seeing the world through a narrow paper tube. The more attention we pay to a single word, the more difficult for us to observe the main idea of the whole material. In addition, inefficient readers make a lot of regressions. A regression is a backward movement along a line of print (Fry, 1963). All readers make some regressions, but good readers make very few, while weak readers make a large number. Sometimes a regression means the reader has come across a new word or phrase which he does not quite understand and wishes to review. Making a regression for this purpose is justifiable. But poor readers have a habit of making much more regressions than they really need. It is possible that this habit was started by the reading material beyond the readers comprehension ability. 3.2 Extra body movementAccording to Fry (1963), the muscles of the eye should take the only external movement in efficient reading. And the extra body movements, such as pointing with the finger, moving the head, or the lips, often slow down reading speed. First, head movement is a common fault. This often occurs when students are nervous. When they are reading, they aim their noses at the words they are reading. However, in fact, eye muscles are quite capable of shifting the eyes from word to word, and they need no help from neck muscles. Second, vocalization is also common in inefficient readers. When vocalizing, readers pronounce aloud each word or whispering softly to themselves. In this situation, their reading speeds are equal to their speaking speeds. However, silent reading is nearly twice as fast as the speaking speed (Fry, 1963). So, vocalization can slow down reading. Besides the obvious movement of lips, tongue or vocal cords, there is a subvocalization that cannot be observed easily. In subvocalization, the lips, tongue or vocal cords do not move at all. But an “inner speech” (Fry, 1963, p.14) is persisting: inside the readers mind, he is saying each word to himself, clearly pronouncing each word and then listening to himself. The extra body movements discussed above are harmful to speed reading and comprehension.3.3 Previous knowledgeTo comprehend, readers have to find the interrelationship between the former knowledge in their brains and the information in front of the eyes (Smith, 1982). Previous knowledge includes every aspects of information helping to make sense of the printed visual information, such as vocabulary, syntax, and background knowledge, etc. The more previous knowledge is stored in brain, the easier for readers to predict and comprehend. Thats why when readers meet some material beyond their knowledge scope, they cannot read fast. 3.4 Concentration If a readers mind always wanders about and cannot focus on his reading, he can never read successfully. In fact, it is not the eyes but the brain that does the reading (Smith, 1982). It takes concentration to find the interrelated information in mind. Therefore, concentration is important in reading. In this part, we have seen some factors affecting reading efficiency. Getting aware of these bad habits, readers tend to get rid of them and be more efficient in reading. 4. Training methods for reading fasterBase on the theories of fast reading, some training methods can be developed. And since computers can play some peculiar functions which printed materials cannot, it is necessary to use computer programs to train speed reading skills.4.1 Reading by phrases As it is stated before, good readers are able to get the ideas directly from visual information without going through the sound abstraction stage. And since they read in larger units of information, their spans of recognition are winder than slow readers. Thus, in order to speed up the students reading, teachers have to train their students to drop their sound abstraction and expand their span of recognition. In this way, phrase reading can help, which requires readers to get a phrases rather than a single word in one fixation.First, the teacher can begin training by rewriting a text in the format of cards. Each of them contains only one phrase, and then the teacher flashes them in front of the students one by one. While cards are being flashed, students are required to speak out its meaning, not its pronunciation, as quickly as possible. At first, the speed at which the teacher flashes the cards can be slow, but in later rounds, the speed should be raised. In this way, students have less and less time to read them, forcing them to drop the sound abstraction and go directly to the meanings. Second, after the students get used to the speed of the shorter phrases, teachers should increase the length of phrases. Similarly, the speed of flashing should be increasingly quicker for each round of displaying. In this way, students are able to get used to bigger units of language. Consequently, their spans of recognition are expanded. In the end, the students will be surprised to find that they can finish a line in much shorter time.However, there are disadvantages with this method. It takes a huge amount of time to make so many cards, and the teacher will be very tired after flashing the cards; moreover, it is not easy to control the speed of flashing accurately, and the students depend largely on the teacher. In this case, a computer can do a great help. The Foreign Language Department of Wuyi University (2003) (abbreviated as “FLD” below) designs two modes of reading by phrases, realized with the aid of a computer. In Mode 1, one phrase after another of a text shows up and disappears exactly in accordance with the reading speed the user has chosen. In Mode 2, one phrase of a text is marked by changing its printing color to attract the readers focus, and then it is erased according to the chosen speed. Both the modes force the reader to get a phrase in one fixation at a set speed. 此例是作者为一集体的引证方法。We can see that a computer-aided training method is more efficient in training the readers eye span than the human-made cards. It can meet the needs of readers with different reading competence, and the displaying is very accurate.4.2 Column Reading Column reading is also a method for training the eye spanning. This mode of reading is, in real reading situations, applicable for reading newspapers and magazines. It requires readers to have their eyes focus on the center of a column and use peripheral vision to get the information on both sides of each line. Thus, if a reader gets the skill, his eyes can float down the page to get speedily the information he needs. Of course, this mode of reading is efficient only for browsing the general information contained in newspapers and magazines. The computer program designed by FLD (2003) turns the theory into practical training method. Texts on the computer screen are purposefully made as narrow as a newspaper column, and an arrow moves down the page in accordance with the chosen speed. The arrow, the focusing point, leads the readers eye to float down the column, so that the reader would have to read by a short line in order to keep a ce