2016职称英语卫生A密押整理根据押题做的小抄 词典版.docx

dismay 165 disperse 阅读判断 9 what is a dream? for centuries, people have wondered about the strange things that they dream about. some psychologists say that this nighttime activity of the mind has no special meaning. others, however, think that dreams are an important part of our lives. in fact, many experts believe that dreams can tell us about a persons mind and emotions. before modern times, many people thought that dreams contained messages from god. it was only in the twentieth century that people started to study dreams in a scientific way. the austrian psychologist, sigmund freud, was probably the first person to study dreams scientifically. in his famous book, the interpretation of dreams (1900), freud wrote that dreams are an expression of a persons wishes. he believed that dreams allow people to express the feelings, thoughts, and fears that they are afraid to express in real life. the swiss psychiatrist carl jung was once a student of freuds. jung, however, had a different idea about dreams. jung believed that the purpose of a dream was to communicate a message to the dreamer. he thought people could learn more about themselves by thinking about their dreams. for example, people who dream about falling may learn that they have too high an opinion of themselves. on the other hand, people who dream about being heroes may learn that they think too little of themselves. modern-day psychologists continue to develop theories about dreams. for example, psychologist william domhoff from the university of california, santa cruz, believes that dreams are tightly linked to a persons daily life, thoughts, and behavior. a criminal, for example, might dream about crime. domhoff believes that there is a connection between dreams and age. his research shows that children do not dream as much as adults. according to domhoff, dreaming is a mental skill that needs time to develop. he has also found a link between dreams and gender. his studies show that the dreams of men and women are different. for example, the people in mens dreams are often other men, and the dreams often involve fighting. this is not true of womens dreams. domhoff found this gender difference in the dreams of people from 11 cultures around the world, including both modern and traditional ones. can dreams help us understand ourselves? psychologists continue to try to answer this question in different ways. however, one thing they agree on this: if you dream that something terrible is going to occur, you shouldnt panic. the dream may have meaning, but it does not mean that some terrible event will actually take place. its important to remember that the world of dreams is not the real world. 11 disease, diagnosis, treatment and prevention dismay 164 disperse disease may be defined as the abnormal state in which part or all of the body is not properly adjusted or is not capable of carrying on all its required functions. there are marked variations in the extent of the disease and in its effect on the person. in order to treat a disease, the doctor obviously must first determine the nature of the illness that is, make a diagnosis. a diagnosis is the conclusion drawn from a number of facts put together. the doctor must know the symptoms, which are the changes in body function felt by the patient; and the signs (also called objective symptoms) which the doctor himself can observe. sometimes a characteristic group of signs (or symptoms) accompanied a given disease. such a group is called a syndrome. frequently certain laboratory tests are performed and the results evaluated by the physician in making his diagnosis. although nurses do not diagnose, they play an extremely valuable role in this process by observing closely for signs, encouraging the patient to talk about himself and his symptoms, and then reporting this information to the doctor. once the patients disorder is known, the doctor prescribes a course of treatment, also referred to as therapy. many measures in this course of treatment are carried out by the nurse under the physicians orders. in recent years physicians, nurses and other health workers have taken on increasing responsibilities in prevention. throughout most of medical history, the physicians aim has been to cure a patient of an existing disease. however, the modern concept of prevention seeks to stop disease before it actually happens to keep people well through the promotion of health. a vast number of organizations exist for this purpose, ranging from the world health organization (who) on an international level down to local private and community health programs. a rapidly growing responsibility of the nursing profession is educating individual patients toward the maintenance of total health physical and mental. 12 inquest told of hospital error a hospital error left a dying man on the wrong ward for two days as deep vein thrombosis (dvt) ravaged his body, an inquest heard. stephen melvin newbold suffered massive brain damage when a blood clot formed in his veins. now his families are considering legal action against york hospital, saying that his death was “untimely and unnecessary”. mr newbold, a 52-year-old maintenance worker, went to york hospital on november 3 complaining of a swollen right foot. he should have been sent to a surgical ward where he would have been treated with fragmin, a drug which counters the effects of dvt. however, hospital staff wrongly admitted him to an orthopedic ward, where he stayed for two days, before finally being transferred to the care of a consultant vascular surgeon. twenty-four hours later, on november 6, doctors decided they would have to operate to remove his leg below the knee. the operation went ahead on november 10, but two days later mr newbold suffered a cardiac arrest. a scan revealed he had had a pulmonary embolism, a condition related to dvt. mr newbold suffered brain damage and died in the hospital on november 16. giving evidence, the surgeon said he could not explain why mr newbold had been admitted to an orthopedic ward where it was not policy to administer fragmin. he did not know why his medical team had not given mr newbold the drug later. york coroner donald coverdale said, “from november 3 until the day of the operation, no fragmin was given to mr newbold. if he had been admitted to a consultant vascular surgeons care from day one, it is clear that fragmin would have been prescribed. fragmin reduces the risk of dvt, but does not eliminate it. it is impossible to say whether mr newbold would have suffered this dvt if he had received the fragmin.” he recorded a verdict of death by misadventure. kim daniells, mr newbolds familys lawyer, said, “the family hope that the hospital will learn from the errors, and that no other families will have to suffer in the future.” a spokeswoman for york hospitals nhs trust said, “we would like to extend our sincere sympathies to the family of stephen newbold during this difficult time.” 14 azeri hills hold secret of long life you can see for kilometers from the mountains where allahverdi ibadov herds his small flock of sheep amid a sea of yellow, red, and purple wildflowers. the view from amburdere in southern azerbaijan toward the iranian border is spectacular, but mr. ibadov barely gives it a second glance. why should he? hes been coming here nearly every day for 100 years. according to his carefully preserved passport, mr. ibadov, whose birth was not registered until he was a toddler, is at least 105 years old. his wife, who died two years ago, was even older. they are among the dozens of people in this beautiful, isolated region who live extraordinarily long lives. mr. ibadovs eldest son has just turned 70. emigrant 185 enable he lost count long ago of how many grandchildren he has. “im an old man now i look after the sheep, and i prepare the wood for winter. i still have something to do.” a lifetime of toil, it seems, takes very few people to an early grave in this region. scientists admit there appears to be something in the azeri mountains that gives local people a longer, healthier life than most. miri ismailovs family in the tiny village of tatoni are convinced that they know what it is. mr. ismailov is 110, his great-great-grandson is four. they share one proud boast: neither has been to a doctor. “there are hundreds of herbs on the mountain, and we use them all in our cooking and for medicines”; explained mr. ismailovs daughter, elmira. “we know exactly what they can do. we are our own doctors.” there is one herb for high blood pressure, another for kidney stones, and a third for a hacking cough. they are carefully collected from the slopes surrounding the village. experts from the azerbaijan academy of science believe the herbs may be part of the answer. they have been studying longevity in this region for years. it began as a rare joint soviet-american project in the 1980s, but these studies are not being funded any more. azeri scientists have isolated a type of saffron unique to the southern mountains as one thing that seems to increase longevity. another plant, made into a paste, dramatically increases the amount of milk that animals are able to produce. “now we have to examine these plants clinically to find out which substances have this effect,” said chingiz gassimov, a scientist at the academy. the theory that local people have also developed a genetic predisposition to long life has been strengthened by the study of a group of russian emigres whose ancestors were exiled to the caucasus 200 years ago. the russians life span is much shorter than that of the indigenous mountain folk though it is appreciably longer than that of their ancestors left behind in the russian heartland. “ over the decades, i believe local conditions have begun to have a positive effect on the new arrivals”, professor gassimov said. “its been slowly transferred down the generations.” but mr. ismailov, gripping his stout wooden cane, has been around for too long to get overexcited. “theres no secret,” he shrugged dismissively. “i look after the cattle and i eat well. life goes on.” 15 beyond the pap scientists have known for some time that virtually all cases of cervical cancer are triggered by a family of viruses called human papillomavirus, or hpv. most women who become infected with hpv are able to shake off the virus and suffer no apparent long-term consequences to their health. but a few women develop a persistent infection that can, for reasons that are not entirely clear, eventually lead to cancerous changes in the cervix. now researchers at the digene corp. of beltsville, maryland, have developed a test that detects an active hpv infection by looking for its genetic byproducts in the vagina. the hpv test was better than the standard pap test at finding cervical cancer at any stage, according to two studies published this month in the journal of the american mpdical association. so far, so good. unfortunately, the tests false-positive rate how often it indicated that there was a problem when none existed was almost twice as high as that for the pap smear. in these cases, a biopsy of the womans cervix showed no sign of disease. emaciated 184 emergency and thats the crux of the problem. how many women should undergo what is, when it comes right down to it, unnecessary treatment to find a few more cases of cervical cancer? shouldnt health officials focus instead on making sure that more women undergo regular pap-smear examinations? after all, pap smears, though far from perfect, have helped dramatically lower the death toll from cervical cancer, taking it from the no. 1 cause of death due to cancer in american women to the 10th. complicating matters is the fact that hpv is a very common infection. in some parts of the us as many as half of all women under age 35 have an active case. yet 99 out of 100 women who are hpv-positive will never get cervical cancer, estimates dr. joanna cain, vice president of the american college of obstetricians and gynecologists. “if those 99 women live their lives as if theyre going to develop cancer,” she says, “were not necessarily doing them any good.” at present, the hpv test is approved in the us only to help resolve ambiguous results from a pap-smear test. many gynecologists believe that hpv will eventually replace the pap. but theyre not willing to abandon it without a lot more detailed information and neither should you. 概完 9 aspirin a new miracle drug 1 using aspirin, an over-the-counter pill on sale in every supermarket without a prescription, to treat serious circulatory disease may seem almost like quackery. but today doctors recognize this drug as a potent compound as important as antibiotics, digitalis and other miracle drugs. 2 in its natural form as willow bark and leaves, this remarkable remedy dates back to hippocrates. in 1829 the chemical in the willow tree that can relieve pain and reduce fever was discovered to be salicin. by 1899 the bayer company in germany had marketed a variant, acetylsalicylic acid,under the name of aspirin. 3 since then, aspirin and confounds containing aspirin have been taken by tens of millions of arthritis patients. as a pain killer aspirin is, according to one study, more effective than all other analgesics and narcotics available for oral use. it also acts onthe bodys thermostat, turning down fever. 4 but some of its powers remained unsuspected until recently. in 1950 the late dr. craven wrote to a small western medical journal about 400 overweight, sedentary male patients to whom he had given one or two aspirin tablets a day. none had had a heart attack. he enlarged his group to 8,000 and in 1956 reported：”not a single case of detectable coronary or cerebral thrombosis” and “no major stroke” had occurred in patients who had taken one or two tablets daily for from one to ten years. but his observations were largely ignored. 5 then dr. vane proved that aspirin turned off the bodys prostaglandinshormonelike chemicals that can be secreted by every cell. some potent prostaglandins are harmful compounds that create fever, pain and arthritis. one of them stimulates platelets in the blood to begin forming clots inside arteries. aspirin blocks this dangerous effect. 6 vanes finding caused some researchers to recall cravens 1956 observations, which now had a possible scientific explanation. numerous studies were begun to find out whether aspirin could indeed inhibit heart attacks and stroke. famine 207 farm 7 in 1972, ten us medical institutions began two “double-blind” trials of 303 patients who suffered from transient ischemic attacks (tias). four aspirin tablets a day were given to 153 patients, while placebo tablets were given to 150. neither patients nor doctors knew which was which. after six months, the patients on aspirin had experienced much fewer tias, and fewer strokes and deaths from strokes than the “controls”. the results were so conclusive that aspirin has been used for this purpose widely. 11 surgery involving the heart 1the heart-lung machine (pump-oxygenator) is a valuable addition to the modern operating room. this machine has made it possible to perform many operations on the heart and other thoracic organs which could not otherwise be done. there are several types of machines in use, all of which serve as a temporary substitute for the patients heart and lungs. 2 the machine siphons off the blood from the large vessels entering the heart on the right side so that no blood passes through the heart and lungs. the blood is returned to the general circulation for body distribution through one of the large arteries. while passing through the machine, the blood is oxygenated by means of an oxygen inlet, and carbon dioxide is removed by various chemical means. these are the processes that normally take place between the blood and the air in the lung tissue. while in the machine, the blood is also “defoamed” to be sure that all air bubbles are removed, since such bubbles could be fatal to the patient by obstructing blood vessels. an electric motor in the machine serves as a pump during the surgical procedure to distribute the processed blood throughout the body by means of the artery mentioned above. 3 diseased valves may become deformed and scarred from endocarditis so that they are ineffective and often obstructive. in some cases a special small knife can be inserted into the heart chamber and the valve can be cut so that it no longer obstructs the blood flow. the valve may even become partially functional. in other cases there may be so much damage that replacement is the only resort. substitute valves made of plastic materials have proved to be a lifesaving measure for many patients. very thin butterfly valves made of dacron or other synthetic material have also been successfully used. 4 artificial hearts or parts of hearts designed to assist the ventricles in their pumping function have not proved as successful as the artificial valves. however, research continues and it is quite possible that an effective device may soon be ready for use. more spectacular is the transplantation of a human heart from the body of a person who has recently died. tissues of the donor and the recipient should be as closely matched as possible to avoid rejection by the recipients antibody mechanism. this rejection syndrome is the most serious problem related to heart transplants. 12 ginseng shows benefit in cancer treatment 1 flaxseed slowed the growth of prostate tumors in men, while ginseng helped relieve the fatigue that cancer patients often feel, us researchers reported on saturday in two of the first scientifically rigorous looks at alternative medicine. 2 the studies reflect doctors efforts to explore the risks and benefits of foods and supplements that are routin