江苏大学学术论文写作课件unit1.doc

unit 1. general introduction to professional paper writing（6hrs）1. classification of professional papers a professional paper is a formal printed document in which professionals present their views and research findings on any deliberately chosen topic. it is variously known as “research paper”, “course paper”, “thesis paper” or “library paper”. no matter what kind paper may actually belong to, the task of author may, in most cases, be the same to do research on any particular topic, and then gather information on it, and report the findings of his research. a professional paper can never be written in a random format, rather it should be written in a specific one. the format will make the paper an integrated whole from the placing of the title to the width of the margins, and to the notation used in an acknowledging the material drawn from other sources or the help given by others. the writing process of a paper can help a beginner to learn how to use the library resources and get himself familiar with the format all scholars agree to take in their papers. professional papers differ from any other non-professional writings in that they involve the use of library resources from which facts, quotations , and opinions of others are drawn to explain and support their own research findings and viewpoints as authenticated ideas in the paper. these resources must be identified by numbered notes, placed at the end of the paper or at the bottom of the page. professional papers, for the above reasons, must always include a bibliography, i.e., an alphabetical list of all the sources cited. professional papers assigned in universities and colleges or any other research institutions are generally of the following four types: (1)report; (2)research paper; (3)course paper, and (4)thesis paper (dissertation).1) report paperthe report paper summarizes and reports the findings of author(s) on a particular subject. the author(s) may not give his/their own opinion on the issue, nor evaluates the findings, but merely catalogs them ins sensible sequence. for instance, a paper listing the opinions of statesman or politicians during the debate over a certain event would be a report paper. likewise, a paper that chronologically narrates the last days of a personality would also be a report paper.2)research papera research paper can be intelligent, well-informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions. it draws its material from many sources. its aim is to assemble facts and ideas and by studying then to draw new conclusions as to facts or interpretations, or to present the material in the light of a new interest. research papers are or can be the most important and reliable sources for textbooks, monographs, and all other documentary works. a complete research paper is usually composed of the following elements: title, author, affiliation, abstract, keywords, introduction, theoretical analysis and / or experimental description, results and discussion or conclusion, acknowledgements, references, etc. a research paper usually deals with a relatively specific topic, and with a comparatively narrow subject.3) course paperdifferent from the report paper and research paper, a course paper mainly refers to the paper written after a specific course is learned or at the end of the term. so its contents usually should be in line with the course requirements and under the instruction of the course instructor. since this type of paper is always written and handed in at the end of the term , it is also called “term paper”.4) thesis paper (dissertation)a thesis paper is usually written and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ma or ms (or ph.d) in a specific discipline. unlike a report paper, a thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. a thesis is a proposition or point of view that the writer or speaker is willing to argue against or defend. a paper that is used to argue for ratification of a certain event would therefore be a thesis paper. writing a thesis paper requires the writer to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing a report paper does not. before presenting a thesis or dissertation, the candidate for a maters or doctoral program must complete all the necessary examinations. in general, a dissertation is a lengthy , formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the masters or doctoral degree at a university or a research institution. a doctoral dissertation represents an original contribution to knowledge construction, and is a more detailed study of a research problem than that required for the masters or doctoral degree. included in a thesis (dissertation) are more or less such sections as acknowledgements, abstracts (both in chinese and in english), introduction and / or literature review, methodology, date collection and date analysis, findings and conclusions, suggestions or future work, etc. as is often required, a thesis for the degree of ma or ms should be of something new, while a dissertation for the degree of ph.d should be something original and creative. the thesis , or dissertation , should be independently completed, under the supervisors guidance, by the candidate himself / herself, reflecting the candidates own research findings.2.general characteristics of english academic writing style academic writing in english is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. its objective is to inform rather than entertain. as well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. accordingly, academic writing is structured, formal and objective. its language is often abstract and complex.there are eight main features that are often discussed to represent the style of academic writing: complex, formal, objective, explicit, accurate, hedged, responsible and making reference to other writers work. it uses language precisely and accurately.generally, as andy gillett (2010) points out, english academic writing:l is complexl is formall is impersonal and objectivel is explicitl is accuratel is cautious or tentativel is responsiblel references other writers work2. 1 complexitywritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language. written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language-they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words. writ-ten texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. they have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. it has more subordinate clauses, more “that/to” complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.the following features are common in academic written texts: noun-based phrases, subordinate clauses/embedding, complement clauses, sequences of prepositional phrases, participles, passive verbs, lexical density, lexical complexity, nominalization, attributive adjectives.halliday (1989, p. 79) compares a sentence from a spoken text with a typical written variant:spoken: you can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that theyll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise , no matter how bad the weather gets. written: the use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the most adverse weather conditions. the main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary.other equivalents are given below (halliday, 1989, p. 81):spokenwrittenwhenever id visited there before, id ended up feeling that it would be futileif i tried to do anything more.every previous visit had left me with a sense of thefutility of further action on my part.the cities in switzerland had once been peaceful, but they changed when people became violent.violence changed the face of once peaceful swiss cities.because the technology has improved its less risky than it used to be when you install them at the same time, and it doesnt cost so much either.improvements in technology have reduced the risks and high costs associated withsimultaneous installation.the people in the colony rejoiced when it was promised that things would change in this way.public opinion in the colony greeted the promised change with enthusiasm.2.2 formalityacademic writing is relatively formal. formal writing doesnt use contractions, or colloquialisms and slang. in general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions. for instance, you should avoid:l colloquial words and expressions: “stuff”, “a lot of”, “thing”,l “sort of”;l abbreviated forms: “cant”, “doesnt”, “shouldnt”;l two word verbs: “put off”, “bring up”;l sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays but use them in reports;l asking questions.look at these examples:contraction uncontracted phraseisnt is notitll be completed it will be completedtheyve they haveslang or colloquial words or phrasesokaypretty reliablefixdead easyreally difficultmessed up2.3 objectivitywritten language is in general objective rather than personal. it therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. this means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. this is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. nobody really wants to know what you “think” or “believe”. they want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. the thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear (gillett, 2010b).compare these two paragraphs:the question of what constitutes “language proficiency” and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more “communicative (candle & swain, 1980; oller, 1979) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.we dont really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. i think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it. which is more objective? of course, the first one is more objective. in general, avoid words like “i”, “me”, “myself”. a reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. it is therefore unnecessary to make this explicit.dont write: “in my opinion, this a very interesting study.”write: “this is a very interesting study.”avoid “you” to refer to the reader or people in general.dont write: “you can easily forget how different life was 50years ago.write: “it is easy to forget how different life was 50 years ago.”more examples:l clearly this was far less true of france than .l this is where the disagreements and controversies begin .l the data indicates that .l this is not a view shared by everyone; jones, for example, claims that .l . very few people would claim .l it is worthwhile at this stage to consider .l of course, more concrete evidence is needed before .l several possibilities emerge .l a common solution is .2.4 explicitnessacademic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in english to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. these connections can be made explicit by the use of different signaling words.academic writing is explicit in several ways:it is explicit in its signposting of the organization of the ideas in the text (biber, johansson, leech, conrad, & finnegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). these connections can be made explicit by the use of different signaling words.for example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear.the bristol 167 was to be britains great new advance on american types such as the lockheed constellation and douglas dc- 6, which did not have the range to fly the atlantic non-stop. it was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in britain. however, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.if you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.while an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of cairn cross that the significance of this outflow was realized. partly this was because the current account de fixit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.if you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the history of europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lords control of the land. similarly, marx was interested in slavery and in the classical indian and chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.if you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.he is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. in addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the canadian mission school.if you are giving examples, do it explicitly.this has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. for example, in the northern context, the previous bishop of down and connor dr. phil bin refused for most of his period of leadership in belfast to have jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese. it is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text. if you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it.do this in academic writing.mcgreil (1977:363 - 408) has shown that though dubliners find the english more acceptable than the northern irish, dubliners still seek a solution to the northern problem within an all-ireland state.notalthough dubliners find the english more acceptable than the northern irish, dubliners still seek a solution to the northern problem within an alt-ireland state.notresearchers have shown that though dubliners find the english more acceptable than the northern irish, dubliners still seek a solution to the northern problem within an all-ireland state (gillett, 2010c).2.5 accuracyacademic writing uses vocabulary accurately. most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. linguistics distinguishes clearly between “phonetics” and “phonemics”, or “grammar” with “syntax”; generalenglish does not.choose the correct word, for example, “meeting”, “assembly”, “gathering or “conference”.or distinguish from: “money”, “cash”, “currency”, “capital” or “funds” (gillett, 2010d).for example:a rentcharge is the right to receive an annual sum out of the income of land every year.fault: grammar-duplication of meaning-”annual” = “every year”correction: a rentcharge is the right to receive an annual sum out of the income of land.importance: quite important-be careful.finally, it enables the therapist to assess the effectiveness of his own clinical skills and, hopefully, to improve them in future.fault: “hopeful” is an adverb which therefore limits meaning of verb, but in this case it tells you nothing about the meaning of “improve”.correction: finally, it enables the therapist to assess the effective- ness of his own clinical skills and, it is hoped, to improve them in future.importance. some people think this is important, but there are many similar acceptable words-” naturally , amazingly, fortunately, happily, regrettably” (biber, johansson, leech, conrad, & fin-egan, 1999, pp. 856 - 857) - be careful.2.6 hedgingit is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and information. however it is now recognized that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called “hedging” or “vague language”. in other words, it is wise to use a cautious tone in your writing, because very often you are discussing issues in which there is no absolutely right answer, or absolutely correct definition, or absolutely perfect solution. if you present something as being the best way, it might easily be shown not to be the best way! so it is usually better to “suggest”, rather than “state.” it is also necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. different subjects prefer to do this in different ways (gillett, 2010e).language used in hedging:1)introductory verbs e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, elieve, doubt, be sure, indicate,