语言学复习要点.doc

语言学复习要点样题一：Indo-European Language family:It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000 (some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be a highly inflected language . It was a language in which the various forms of a given word showed its relationship to other words in a sentence. When groups of this language moved away from the original homeland, believed to be somewhere in the eastern most part of Europe, the language of each group grew and developed along different lines in much the same way that American and Australian English now show differences from the language of England. Over very long periods of complete isolation from each other, these dialects of a single language changed so much that they became separate languages. Speakers of one were not understood by speakers of another. The surviving languages show various degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bear a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution. They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic. In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany , the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic, we find Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc. The five Romance languages, namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language Latin. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English. All these languages have some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Some of them have played a considerable role in the course of the development of the English vocabulary. Sense relations between words:Synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近。Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy. 多义现象指同一个词可能有多个意义。Homonymy: refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.同音/同形异义是指某些词的意义不同，但是具有相同形式的现象，即不同的词在发音或拼写上一样，或发音和拼写都一样。Homophones: words which sound alike but are written differently and often have different meanings. 同音异义词是指发音相同但拼写不同，通常意义也不同的词。Homographs: words which are written in the same way but which are pronounced differently and have different meanings. 同形异义词是指词形相同但发音、词义各异的词。Complete homonyms: words which are identical in both sound and spelling, but different in meanings.完全同音同形异义词是指发音和拼写都相同，但意义不同的词。Hyponymy: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 上下义关系是指一个更广义、更具有包容性的词与一个更具体的词之间的意义关系。Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate.意义更广泛的词叫上义词。Hyponyms: the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 更为具体的词称为下义词。Meronymy: the semantic relation that holds between a part and the whole部分与整体的关系Antonymy: the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. 反义现象一词用来指意义上的对立。Gradable antonyms: some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.有些反义词是存在级差的，因为在一对词的两个词之间往往具有中间形式。因此，它是一个程度的问题。Complementary antonyms: A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.一对互补反义词具有否定该对中的一个词就意味着对另一个的肯定的特征。换句话说，它不是一个两极端之间的程度的问题，而是一种非此即彼的问题。Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.显示两个词项之间关系颠倒的成对词被称为关系反义词。Lexical categories:Closed-class: closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited and new members are not regularly added.封闭类：指成员数目确定、有限并且新成员不会经常增加的词类。Open-class: open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergnece of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon.开放类：指成员数目原则上无穷无尽，随着新观念、新发明等的出现，新词就会不断地添加到词库中来的词类。Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories Major lexical categories differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built. Major lexical categories are Noun, Verb, Adjective and preposition. Minor lexical categories are determiner, degree word, qualifier, auxiliary, conjunction.样题二：Terms in SLA:Acculturation: the process in which learners adapt to the new culture of the L2 community文化移入Motivation: the factors that determine a persons desire to do something.动机Instrumental motivation工具型动机：想学习一种语言，是因为它有利于某些“工具型的”目标，如找工作、阅读外国报纸、通过考试。Integrative motivation综合性动机：想学习一种语言是为了与另一种文化背景说这种语言的人进行交际。Fossilization: (in second and foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning. Fossilized features of pronunciation contribute to a persons foreign accent.石化（第二语言或外语学习中）指这样一个过程，有时出现不正确的语言特征永久性地成为一个人说或写一种语言的方式。发音、词汇用法和语法的各个方面在第二语言或外语学习中会成为固定或僵化。发音特征的石化造成一个人的异国口音。Language transfer: the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur. Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language. Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form.语言迁移指一种语言对学习另一种语言产生的影响，可能会出现两类语言迁移。负迁移，亦称干扰，是由于套用母语模式或规则而产生的错误或不合适的目的语形式。正迁移是指有利于语言学习的迁移，在母语与目的语有相同的形式时会出现这种情况。Subfields of linguistics:Phonetics: phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音。Phonology: the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音位学研究一门语言中的语音是如何形成模式的，这些语音是如何在语言交际中用来传达意义的。Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.形态学指对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。Syntax: a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学：是语言学的分支，他研究词是如何被组合成句子的，以及支配句子构成的规则。Semantics: the subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.有关意义研究的学科称为语义学。具体地说，语义学专门以语言单位、词和句子的意义为研究的对象。Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子来进行成功交际的。Sociolinguistics: the study of language in relation to social factors.社会语言学指联系社会因素来研究语言的学科。Language acquisition: refers to the childs acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.语言习得是指儿童对其母语的习得，也就是儿童是如何逐渐理解和说其社区的语言的。Second language acquisition (SLA): formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.第二语言习得是在二十世纪七十年代左右被正式确立为一门学科，它是指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言的系统研究。Psycholinguistics: the study of language to psychology.心理语言学Applied linguistics: the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching. 应用语言学Suprasegmental features: 出现在音段层面之上的音位特征称为超切分特征Stress: the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.重音指一个词或音节的发音比周围的词或音节的发音要大的力量。Tone: height of pitch and change of pitch which is associated with the pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the meaning of the word.声调指音节或单词的发音中的音调高低及其变化，声调影响词的意义。Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.当音高、重音和音长联结成句子而不是单独的词的时候，它们就统称为语调。样题三：Inflectional and derivational affixes (morphemes):屈折词缀和派生词缀有何区别屈折词缀常常在词干后面添加一个微小的或微妙的语法意义。例如，toys, walks, Johns等词中的屈折词缀就是如此。相反，派生词缀常常改变词汇意义，如cite（引用），citation（条文）；generate（产生），generation（一代人）。Important distinctions:Prescriptive and descriptive: prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.规定与描写代表了语言学研究中的两种不同的类别。如果一种语言学研究旨在对人们实际使用的语言进行描写和分析的话，它就是描写性的；如果语言学研究的目的是为语言运用中的正确的和标准的言语行为确立规则的话，如告诉人们应该说什么、不应该说什么，那么它就是规定性的。Synchronic and diachronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.对语言在历史上的某一时间点进行的描写就是共时性研究；对语言随时间变化而变化进行的描写就是历时性研究。Langue and parole: langue was used by the linguist Sassure to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of or, as Saussure said, “agree to use”. Langue is the “ideal” form of a language. Saussure called the actual use of language by people in speech or writing “parole”.语言学家索绪尔用“语言”这个术语来指语言系统，即某一语言说话者共有的语音和词汇体系的知识，或以索绪尔的话，他们“一致使用”的语音和词汇体系，它是某一语言的“理想”形式。对于人们口头和书面上实际说出的话，索绪尔称“言语”。Competence and performance: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.乔姆斯基将语言能力定义为理想的语言使用者的语言规则方面的知识，把语言运用定义为这种知识在语言交际中的具体实现。Terms in sociolinguistics:Speech variety/language variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. 言语变体，或语言变体指的是由一位言者或一群言者所使用的任何具有区别性的言语形式。Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.Dialectal varieties:Regional dialect: a regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. 地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。Sociolect: social-class dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. 社会阶层方言，或社会方言是指具有某一特定社会阶层特征的语言变体。Idiolect: idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.个人语言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了有关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。Ethnic dialect: an ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.种族方言是一个不同于地域差别的社会方言；主要是那些经历过像种族歧视或隔离这种形式的社会孤立的，没有多少特权的人群使用这种语言。Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. 选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域。样题四：Speech Act Theory:Locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act performed in saying something.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.奥斯汀在言语行为理论中区分三类话语所包含或引起的行为。言内行为就是发出词、短语、从句的动作。它是通过句法、词汇和音位学的方式来传达字面意义的行为。言外行为是表达言者意图的行为，是在说话的过程中执行的动作。言后行为是由说某事或因为说某事而执行的动作；它是由话语所引起的后果或变化；是由说某事而执行的动作。2005真题Design features of human language:Design features: design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何一种动物交际系统的规定性特征。Arbitrariness: arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式和意义之间没有自然的联系。Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.语言的二层性是指：语言是一个系统，它是由两套结构，或者两个层面构成的。在较低的或者基础的层面上，存在着一个语音结构，它们自身没有意义。但是，语言的语音系统可以组合和再组合成大量的有意义的单位，这些单位存在于语言系统的较高层面。Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.语言是能产的或具有创造性的，因为它使得其使用者对新符号的构建和解释成为可能。这就是语言的能产性。Displacement: displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.移位性是指语言使用者可以用语言来表达不在交际现场（时间和空间上）的物体、事件及概念。Cultural transmission: while human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. This is what cultural transmission means.尽管人类的语言能力具有遗传的基础，即我们都天生具有习得语言的能力，但任何一门语言系统的细节都不是靠遗传来传承的，而是要通过被传授与学习。这就说明语言具有文化传承的特点。2006真题Classification of synonyms:Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects方言同义词Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style文体同义词Emotive synonyms: synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感同义词Collocational synonyms: synonyms that differ in their collocation.搭配同义词Semantically different synonyms 语义上有差别的同义词2009真题Two special language varieties:Pidgin: a pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 洋泾浜语是将几种语言混合或者融合在一起的一种特殊语言变体，它是由操不同语言的人为了有限的目的，如贸易而使用的语言。Creole: when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.当一种洋泾浜语成为了某一言语社区的主要语言，并且由该言语社区的孩子习得作为本族语时，它就成为了克里奥耳语。2010真题Word formation:Compounding: a word-formation process through which new words are created by combining at least two free morphemes.复合这一构词方式是将至少两个自由词素连接起来构成新词。Derivation: the process in which new words are created from already existing words through affixation. In other words, new words are created by attaching prefixes or suffixes to already existing words.派生是指一种构词形式，即通过现有的词上添加词缀来构成新词。也就是说，在现有的词上添加前缀或后缀来构成新词。Conversion: the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 转化：把单词从一种词类转化成另一种词类从而构成新词。Blending: the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.拼缀：分别把两个词的部分或一个词外加另一词的部分组合起来构成新词。Clipping: a common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead.截短：通过截除原词的一部分，使用剩余的部分来缩短一个较长的单词从而构成新词。Acronymy: the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.首字母缩略：通过把社会机构以及政治机构的名称或特殊的名词短语和术语的首字母合在一起来构成新词。Back-formation: a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix.逆生：通过删除一个假想词缀来构成新词。Functions of language:Phatic: establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact.寒暄Directive: get the hearer to do something. 指令Informative/descriptive: give information about facts. 信息Interrogative: get information from others.询问Expressive/emotive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. 表达Evocative: c