新编英语语法教程第40讲从句到篇.docVIP

从句到篇 前面39讲主要解决语法结构特别是句子结构问题，其中虽也涉及句子在一定上下问中的使用，但主要讲的是词组结构和句子结构，基本上没有越出词法的范围。最后一讲谈一谈句子在语篇中的使用问题。40。1 句子和语篇 如前所述，句子是语法结构的最高层次，也是构成语篇Text的基本语言单位。所谓“语篇”。不论是口头形式或书面形式，都是一些意义相关的句子为达到一定交际目的并通过一定手段连接起来，从而具有结构上的粘着性Cohesion和意义上的连贯性Coherece的语义整体。因此，句子和语篇有着不可分割的联系。 1句子的意义和交际功能实际使用中的句子总是出现在一定的上下文和语境中。没有绝对孤立的句子：句与句之间或者句子和语境之间总是互相联系，互相制约的。正是这种上下文或语境的制约关系确定着一个句子的交际功能Communicative Function.句子的意义和交际功能是既相统一又相矛盾的，这种矛盾只有把句子放到一定上下文中去考察才能得到解决。我们通常说“句子按其交际功能分为陈述句，祈使句，感叹句”。这种描述主要着眼于句子的语法结构特征。如若论其交际功能，那就显得不够全面，因为陈述句就其交际功能来说，并非都是陈述观点或事实，疑问句也并非都是用于提问。同一句子结构在不同上下文和语境中可具有不同的交际功能；反之，同一交际功能在不同场合也可用不同的句子结构来表示。例如： He will reportthis to the authorities concerned.这一陈述句在不同上下文和语境中可以理解为：He mentioned in passing that he will.陈述事实 It is supposed that he will.表示推测 He promised that he will.表示允诺He warned that he will.表示警告 He threatened that he will.表示威胁又例如： Is Tom there?I hear someone whispering. Whats thaton the table? Clear-up time! Where do your shoes belong? Couldwe have the garbage can over here, Tom? Lets get this list run off before the faculty meeting starts.上述所有这些陈述句“疑问句”祈使句“感叹句根据不同的上下文可以分别理解为： Send for Tom,please. DonTwhisper;listen attentively. Yououghtnt to have put that onthe table. Lett start theclean-up. Dont put your shoes here. Tom,take the garbage can away. Please get enough copies of this list typewritten before the faculty meeting starts.这就是说，同一交际功能指示别人做某事或不做某事可以用不同的句子结构去表达。如果脱离了具体的语境或上下文，便无法判定上述诸句的共同祈使功能。 2）句子结构的正确性和适合性 我们在交际场合中使用句子的时候，不仅要注意句子结构的正确性（Correctess)，而且要注意所选的句子结构在特定上下文或语境中的适合性（Appropriacy).试观察：What does your brother do?* He work in factory.上述第一组对话的答语显然具有语法结构上的错误，这是”正确性“问上题；第二组对话的答语尽管在语法上无懈可击，但它答非所问，这便是”适合性“问题。 句子结构的适合性也只有在特定的上下文或语境中才能判定。已知信息通常出现在句首，新信息一般出现在句尾，而在这个答语中却把新信息（the storm)置于句首，而把已知信息（the crops)置于句尾，以致新旧信息倒置，使这个句子答非所问。对于这样的问句，如果采用被动结构： The crops were destoryed by the storm.显然就比较适合了。这就是适合性问题。所以，在语法教学中不仅要重视句子语法结构的正确性，而且要重视句子在具体上下文或语境中的适合性。这样才能把语言知识化为交际能力。 下面做一则练习，要求根据上下问选择一个比较适合的句子结构。 EXERCISE 40A40。2 语篇纽带 如前所述，语篇不论是口头形式或书面形式，都是一些意义相关的句子通过一定的承接手段合乎逻辑地组织起来的语义整体。连句成篇的手段是多种多样的，大体可分为下列三类：第一类是表示时间顺序，方位关系，因果关系等逻辑概念的过渡词语（Transitional Words/Phrase),统称为“逻辑纽带”（Logical Connectors),我们在第37讲谈到的“连接性状语”就属于这一类。第二类是通过一定时，体形式以及省略，替代，照应等句法手段所表示的承接关系，这一类连句手段统称为“语法纽带”（Grammatical Connectors).第三类是通过词汇的重复，同义词，近义词，反义词的使用所表示的承接关系，统称为“词汇纽带”（Lexical Connectors).上述三类连句手段在语篇中通常时交织使用的，但为了便于描述，我们还是分开来讲。 1）连句成篇的逻辑纽带 逻辑纽带包括表示时间关系与空间关系，列举与例证，引申与转折，推断与归纳，原因与结果等等逻辑概念的过度词语。这类词语通常是一些连词和连接性副词，如afterwards,later,then,nearby,nextto,firstly,secondly,finally,next,last,and sides,furthermore,moreover,likewise,otherwise,similarly,but,however,nevertheless,though,because,for,therefore,hence,accordingly,consequently,thus等；也可以是一些介词词组，非限定分句，无动词分句和限定分句，如since then,on the right/left,to the east/west/north/south,for example/instance,in other words,on the other hand,on the contrary,for all that,for that reason,in addition,in the same way,in that case,in brief,in short,in conclusion,as a reasult,if so,if not,to sum up,what is more等。 逻辑纽带的重要性在于它能表示笔者的思路和语篇的意义重心。如果一组意义相关的句子不通过一定的过渡词（或其他连句手段）合乎逻辑地连接起来，这组句子就不能构成语篇，就不能具有语篇所必需的粘着性和连贯性。例如下面一段话由于缺少必要的逻辑纽带，读者更把握不住作者的思维脉络和意义重心： In the last twenty years or so, some undeveloped countries have increased their food production. Their populations have at the same time grown faster.The standerd of living hasnt improved. The increase in food production has been achieved at the expense of using up marginal land. There has been no gain in the productivity of land labour.如果在上面这段话中加上一些过渡词，句子之间的逻辑联系便能清楚地显示出来： In the last twenty years or so, some undeveloped countries have increased their food production. Their populations,however,have at the same time grown faster,and so their standard of living hasnt improved. Whatmore,their increase in food production has been achieved at the expense of using up marginal land .As a result,there has been no gain in the productivity of land labour. 2)连句成篇的语法纽带包括动词时体形式的一定搭配以及照应（Reference),替代，省略。平行结构等语法手段的应用。 a)动词某些时，体形式的前后搭配可以起连句作用。比如在叙事文中，上下文用过去进行体，下文用一般过去时，这种上下文的配合很自然地形成了叙事的背景以及在这种背景下某一事件的发生，从而句际之间产生了承接关系。例如： After watching a fireworks display at the Washington Monument,Navy Lt. Cmdr. Williams F.Rolland was driving his wife and children back to their home in Annandale, Virginia. A fused to pass. Reaching a traffic light, Rolland stepped out to talk to the other driver. An argument began .The commanders 19-year-old son rushed to his side.The driver of the tailgating car produced a revolver (手枪）and fired three times .Rolland and his son fell mortally wounded.有时还可在上文用一般过去时,下文用过去完成体,以建立上下文之间的逻辑关系.例如: I stopped to let the car cool off and to study the map. I had expected to be near my objective by now, but everthing still seemed alien to me.在这里,下文用过去完成体(had expected.)为上文所讲的动作）（ stopped to . )提供了说明，从而上下文之间建立起一种因果关系当然，这种时，体形式的配合还可表示其他意义例如：looked at the map and then at the mile-meter(里程表）had come ten miles since lesving the town,and at this point,according to my father,I should be farms and cottages in a valley, with the spire of the church of our village showing in the far distance.以上第两句的意义相当于looked at the map and found that Ihad come ten miles.,这样上下句之间通过动词时，体形式的配合便建立起一种逻辑顺序关系有时，叙述一件事情，可在篇首用现在完成体作为铺叙背景，然后再用一般过去时叙述一件具体的事情例如：French anthropologists(人类学家）have recently discovered surprising information about the Neanderthal men (新石器时代人）who lived in caves of the Middle East some 60,000 years ago.Working in a cave about 250 miles north of Baghdad, Iraq, the Frenchmen found several Neanderthal skeletons, one of such plants as the hellyhock,grape hyacinth, bachelors button, and an unidentified evergreen shrub. The scientists reasoned that someone had carefully laid a corpse on a bier (尸架）of flowers and boughs, for the pollen grains (花粉粒）could not have been carried into the cave and so arranged by wind or four-footed animals. .b)使用照应手段更是一种极其重要的语篇纽带我们在第讲曾介绍过代词照应问题在那里，我们主要讲了使用人称代词和物主代词而建立的照应关系，简称为人称照应（ersonal Reference).人称照应既可在上下句之间起连接作用，也可在更加广阔的范围起连接作用，关于这一点可参阅，此处不再赘述除人称照应外，还讲了通过指示代词和指示限定词通常都可用于后照应（naphoric Reference),即都可用以指代上文出现的人或物例如：Janes having a baby. B: How do you know that? A helicopter is free to go almost anywhere.It can go over swamps and forests.It can cross rivers and mountains ,and it can take off or land almost anywhere without any special prep-aration.This is what makes the helicopter such a useful vehi-cle指示代词的照应对象也可出现在下文即表示前照应关系（Cataphoric Reference).例如：Listen to this. There stould be no error, no delay and no waste.前照应 this is 有时也可以出现与句首：This is what the foreign students have done up to now: They have found an apartment. They have paid two months rent in advance. They have called the electric company. They have bought sheets and towels.指示代词these 有时也可这样用，而that/those 却很少用于前照应（参见）除了人称代词，指示代词以及相应的限定词以外，还有一些副词性的指代词（oreference Pro-form),也可起照应作用这包括时间指代词（如now,then,formerly, previously, meanwhile, afterwards等）这些指代词的使用一般都对上文起衔接作用