会话含义与合作原则.doc

会话含义与合作原则美国语言哲学家格赖斯为了保证谈话顺利进行，谈话双方必须共同遵守一些准则，特别是在1967年提出的“合作原则”。当谈话一方不遵守合作原则而又不是为了说谎为目的即故意违反准则，于是就产生会话含义。会话含义就是一种超出语句本身意义范围的意义，即说话者的“言外之意”。一般来说，人们可以通过违反合作原则中的质、量、关系原则和利用方式准则来表达或推导出会话含义，来表达与字面意思不同的没有说出来的含义，回避志杰说出想表达的意思，含蓄的表达自己的真实意图。会话含义一般可以分为两类：一般含义和特殊含义。一般含义是指在遵守合作原则中的默想准则是带有的含义。特殊含义是指在有意违反合作原则中的某项原则，在特定的语境中推导出来的含义。会话含义的特征可以归纳为：可取消性、不可分离性、可推导性、非规约性和不确定性。概要：一、会话含义的由来二、 合作原则的几项原则：质的原则量的原则关系原则礼貌原则三、会话含义的产生方法：违反质的原则：故意提供不足的信息，提供没有必要的信息违反量的原则：说一些不符合事实的话；说一些荒唐的话违反关系原则利用礼貌原则：使用有歧义的词语：使用不必要的词语；打乱叙述顺序四、会话含义的种类：一般会话含义和特殊会话含义五、会话含义的特点：可取消性、不可分离性、可推导性、非规约性和不确定性关键词：会话含义 合作原则 违反 谈话Conversational Implicature and Cooperative PrincipleAmerican linguistics H.P.Grice once gave in 1967.In the speech, Grice said, the two sides of the conversation must obey some basic rules, especially the “cooperative principle”, to ensure that the conversation can go on propitiously. When one side of the principle doesnt want to lie, conversational implicature comes out. Conversational implicature is a kind of meaning, which is beyond the sentence itself. Generally speaking, people can violate the maxim of quality, quantity, and relation and use the maxim of the manner to produce conversational implicature, which send the unsaid meaning of the words. Generally speaking, conversational implicature can be divided into two kinds: generalized implicature and particularized implicature. Generalized implcature refers to an implicature, which obeys the cooperative principle and also has the meaning. Particularized implicature refers to the implicature that violates some of the cooperative principle and makes the meaning in some specially context. The features of the conversational implicature: cancelability, no detachability, calculability, non-conventionality and indeterminacy:Key words:Conversational implicature cooperative principle violate conversationConversational Implicature and Cooperative PrincipleAmerican linguistics H.P.Grice once gave speeches in 1967.In the speech. Grice said, the two sides of the conversation must obey some basic rules, especially the “cooperative principle”, to ensure that the conversation can go on propitiously. He believed the two sides of the conversation should have a same wish: the two sides can understand each other. So both of them obey some cooperative principles to achieve the aim. However, Grice said, not all the people in the conversation obey the rules. Once one side finds the other side not obey the cooperative principle, he will make himself try his best to understand the unsaid meaning in the conversation. So the conversational implicature comes out.As the conversational implicature has a close relationship with the co operational principle, we will introduce the cooperative principle first. In a conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate；Otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the cooperative principle.There are four main maxims in the cooperative principle:l The maxim of quality: make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange)；Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.l The maxim of quality: do not say what you believe to be false; do not say that for which you back adequate evidence.l The maxim of relation: the words have a relationship with other factors.l The maxim of manner: avoid obscurity of expression; avoid ambiguity; be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); be orderly.The conversational implicature is a meaning out of the sentence itself; it is the speakers meaning under the literal. In the real life, people often violate some principles to sent some dark meaning. The meaning related with the cooperative principle may become by the following ways:First, to violate the maxim of quality 1. Offer the deficient information on purpose. E.g.: One farmer meets Sam and says:“Hey, Sam, my horses got distemper. What did you give yours hen he had it?”“Turpentine,” grunted Sam.A week later they meet again and the first farmer shouts:“Sam, I gave my horse turpentine like you said and it killed him.”“So did mine.” nodded Sam.第一位农妇的真正目的不仅是向Sam了解马病用了什么药，而且想了解治疗的结果，但通过对话它实际上只达到了一半的目标。Sam并没有满足第一位农妇想了解治疗结果的要求，它违反了“量”的准则，并没有完全提供交谈目的所需要的全部信息，结果第一位农夫因为没有察觉到这一点而受骗上当了。2. The information is superfluous E.g. : 甲：他在你们银行工作的怎么样?乙：嗯，挺好！他不常跟同事吵架，跟顾客吵架也不多。正常情况下，作为对甲的回答，“挺好”已基本够了，但乙又说了下面这两句话，提供了似乎毫无必要的信息。但是这两句话表达了乙的含义：他这人不讨人喜欢。Second, to violate the maxim of the quantity.1. Say some words that are not the truth. Some rhetoric offers the advantage to this.1) He is a fine friend.2) You are the cream in my coffee.第一句是反语，推导出的语用含义与巨资字面意思刚好相反：他是个背信弃义的朋友；第二句是个隐喻，说话人喻指对方是个出类拔萃者；2. Say some words which are cockeyed.甲：伯父就是伯伯的父亲，是吗?乙：师母一定是老师的母亲，我觉得。Third, to violate the maxim of the relation. Say some words, which are not related with the conversation.Johnny: Hey, Sally, lets play marrow bles.Mother: How is your homework getting along, Johnny?母亲的干预应该看作是她有意违反“关系”准则，让儿子从中推导出“不能去玩”这个语用含义。Forth ,to utilize the maxim of manner to understand the conversational implicature.1. To be obscurity on purpose韩信曰：“先生相寡人何如？”对曰：“愿少间。”信曰：“左右去矣。”通曰：“相君之面，不过封侯；相君之背，贵乃不可言.”通意在劝韩信被判刘邦，以诚帝王之业，但又不便明说，便采用了含蓄的双关手法，隐晦的表达了意思。2. To use ambiguity wordsA : Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate editor and professor.B 有意使用歧义句， 使A不能确定他是副主编兼教授还是副主编兼正教授，从而抬高自己的身价。3. To use unnecessary wordsMiss Smith produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home, sweet home”.某人故意不简明扼要地说Miss Smith sang “Home, sweet home”而说了啰嗦繁复的句子，显然是想暗示“史密斯小姐表演的极不成功”这样一个会话含义。4. To disturb the orderHere files of pins extend their shining rows；puffs, powder, patches, Bibles, trifles, billet-doux .句中所列举的东西故意没有按类别叙述，从而破坏了话语的条理性。特别是将“圣经”与妇女的常用物品加杂开列在一起，传达出这样的含义：尽管这位妇女笃信上帝，做到圣经随身携带，但她只是把这本圣经当作与自己的化妆品、情书等相同的杂七杂八的东西罢了。The sorts of the conversational implicature:Generally speaking, conversational implicature can be divided into two kinds: generalized implicature and particularized implicature.Particularized implicature refers to the implicature that violates some of the cooperative principle and makes the meaning in some specially context. In the conversation, one side violates the cooperative principle obliviously. And the other side is forced to concluding the meaning of the words means on the particular time, place and person.Generalized implicature refers to an implicature, which obeys the cooperative principle and also has the unsaid meaning.The features of the conversational implicature:1. Cancellability: The conversational implicature can be canceled; this is the most important feature. If we put some limit or precondition on the inhere words, some meanings can be canceled. There are two factors arouse it.2. No detachabilityConversational implicature makes use of the cooperative principle so that the listener can conclude the meaning from the words. It adheres to the context of the words but not the form of the words. If there is pragmatical meaning in the context it cant disappear no matter what synonymous words are used.3. Calculability The lis