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32The World Bank Institute_Issues Paper Gender, Decentralization and Local Governance(Draft: Not for Quotation)(DRAFT FOR DISCUSSION)December, 2003Roxanne Scott*, Public Sector Specialist and ConsultantMay 2004ConsultantPublic Finance, Decentralization and Poverty Reduction ProgramWorld Bank Institute*The views expressed in this paper are those of the Author, and are not necessarily representative of the World BankContributions and comments from Waafas Ofosu-Amaah, Ann Graham and Gita Gopal are gratefully acknowledged. IntroductionThe Millennium Declaration, and the corresponding Millennium Development goals (MDGs), put forth by the international community, commits member countries to “promote gender equality and the empowerment of women, as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease, and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable” (United Nations, 2000). Even though the third goal addresses gender equality specifically, gender issues are relevant to achieving all of the MDGs, be it whether protecting the environment or achieving sustainable development The Millennium Development Goals are 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 2. achieve universal primary education 3. promote gender equality and empower women 4. reduce child mortality 5. Improve maternal health, 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases 7. Ensure Environmental sustainability, and 8. Develop a global partnership for development (United Nations, 2000). . Although Mmany countries have expressed a commitment to these goals, however, there are often gaps between among policy statements, how policy decisions are made and implemented, and the ways in which governments raise and spend money to support this commitment. The world-wide trend towards decentralization to decentralize, or - the transfer of authority, public roles government functions, resources and responsibilities from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations - can be an effective means vehicle to close thisese gaps if the decentralized system is designed and implemented well The elements of a well designed decentralized system haves been described as getting the fundamental questions “right” in relation to: expenditure assignment (who does what?), revenue assignment (who levies which revenues?), management of fiscal imbalance, vertical and horizontal (role for intergovernmental transfers), management of sub-national government debt, as well as the institutional framework needed to deal with implementation challenges of decentralizing states (Ebel, 2003). . A well-designed and implemented decentralization system should ensure that local democracy, good governance, and the empowerment of women are primary outcomes of the process. Better-informed, active citizens and responsive local governments can influence national and sub-national policy objectives and corresponding financial allocations to alleviate gender inequalities. Citizens should be able to directly address locally elected representatives to assure better understanding of community needs and the services required to meet these needs. Physical proximity to sub-national government processes can make it easier for both men and women to hold their local representatives fiscally accountable when community participatory mechanisms encourage them to become involved in local government decision-making. Well-designed decentralization processes can also create opportunities to bring disadvantaged or marginalized groups into electoral processes. In some countries, decentralization has facilitated the election of women representatives in local government through affirmative action measures such as quotas or reservation systems. The proximity of locally elected representatives to constituents can promote better understanding of community needs of both men and women and of service requirements. This knowledge can be used to direct influence national and sub-national policy objectives and corresponding financial allocations to alleviate gender inequalities. Physical proximity to sub-national government processes can make it easier for both men and women to hold their local representatives fiscally accountable when if community participatory mechanisms allowencourage them to become involvedparticipate in local government decision-making. Well- ddesigned decentralization processes can also create opportunities to bring disadvantaged or marginalized groups into the electoral processes. In some countries, decentralization has facilitated the presence of women representatives in local government through affirmative action measures such as quotas, with varying impacts and outcomes. However, the effective address of gender equality and gender specific issues is hardly an automatic outcome of decentralizing systems. Achieving gender equality and addressing gender specific issues, however, are not automatic outcomes of decentralization processes. Thus, factors measiures that can help create equitable gender outcomes require careful examination of the following: The tType of inter-governmental fiscal relations determines local resource availability and the extent to which local government decision-making can be autonomous;:y both impacting the ability of sub-national (local) governments to effectively address gender and poverty issues. Type of assistance from national womens machineries to local governments or local groups to affect change; Level of Ccapacity and commitment in conducting to conduct gender analysis within policy planning and budgeting processes, particularly within sub-national government agencies;, are often limited. Mechanisms to support e Extent, and of effectiveness of civic engagement by citizens and local informal organized non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in policy planning, budgeting and monitoring of sub-national government spending on programs (including those designed to address gender gaps and issues);, are often insufficiently institutionalized, or a participatory civil society may not be sufficiently evolved to make such processes effectual. Degree of transparent and accountable institutionalized citizen participation measures; and Level of ability of women to effectively influence local government decisions, both as citizens and as elected officials.The degree to which the above measures are supported by local governments varies greatly. At times, In addition, the decentralization process can also result in “local centralization”, where local elites set aside or ignore public policies that are not agreeable with them. These actions can, reduceing resources for those who lack political influence and ties- especially (i.e. the poor and very often women) who are limited by a societys traditional value system. Traditional refers to a society in which the roles of women and men adhere to stereotypes of men as heads of the family or “breadwinner” and of women as responsible for taking care of home and family. This system may reject public roles for these populations and restrict their capacity to acquire knowledge, skills, and information needed to counteract them. Local government officials are often adept at subverting changes handed down from the central government when such changes threaten “traditional norms and structures that served their interest and restricting the ability for women government representatives to be effective in supporting their constituencies. Lastly, a societys traditional value system, limited capacity and access to information are key barriers to womens ability to effectively influence local government decisions, both as citizens and as elected representatives. (Siahaan, 2002).Unless decentralization is well-designed and implemented,undertaken appropriately, with adequate safeguards, it might severely impair gender equality and representation at the local level will not occur. The question becomes: what legislation, institutional structuresnational machineries and is what policy measures should proceed precede and/or or accompany decentralization to assist with goals of gender equality in terms of equality of opportunity and equality of voice? This paper will identify key gender issues related to:examine the key legislative, policy and institutional measures necessary to help institutionalize and support gender equity in a well-desgigned and implemented decentralization process. A number of country experiences augment the discussion of these measures. They are discussed in the following categories: Intergovernmental relations, looking at fiscal, policy and institutional dimensions; Sector planning, resource management and service delivery, and Gender aspects of participation and representation in decentralized systems.A number of country experiences are presented, highlighting promising legislative, institutional and political structures and processes under decentralization that support gender- responsive service delivery systems, as well as womens effective participation and representation. The concluding section outlines offers questions requiring further analysis to better understand and support a gender-responsive approach to decentralization and how it can lead to the empowerment of women. I) Intergovernmental Relations IssuesThe term “intergovernmental relations” refers to dynamics between national and sub-national government agencies (including those at the provincial-state, district-county, municipal and village levels) within the same country. Fiscal DimensionsA number of intergovernmental fiscal issues need to be considered when discussing decentralization frameworks to support gender equality goals. These include: Fiscal autonomy of sub-national governments Sub-national government autonomy for local development planning, Access to sufficient revenue to make an impact on local development, Clear division of responsibilities across national and sub-national governments As with all development issues, lack of resources and fiscal autonomy can hindermake it difficult for the ability of sub-national governments ability to be responsive to respond to poverty, and gender issues and gender gaps that exist within their localities. Clearly delineated roles concerning funding and implementation and responsibilities between national and sub-national governments also need to be outlined. related to funding and implementation responsibilities. This can help ensure that fiscal responsibility matches resource availability (and autonomous decision-making around details of policy implementation) at the appropriate levels of government. In many countries, Hhowever, the structures of intergovernmental financial systems in many countries tend to exhibit certain broad patterns, such as the existence of inadequate “own resources” of sub-national governments to finance expenditure functions and a lack of sub-national autonomy to levy taxes that are capable of yielding enough revenue to meet local needs (Bird, 1995)ird, 1995) Fiscal decentralization a core component of decentralization emphasizes that if local government and private organizations are to carry out decentralized functions effectively, they must have adequate revenues raised locally or transferred from central government as well as the authority to make expenditure decisions (Rondinelli, 1999). . In poor countries and in particular, poor localities, most sub-national government resources are generated by are generated through central government fiscal transfers from from re-distributive taxation, and from donor funds, often with conditionalities attached to how these funds are spent. Lack of own revenue resources, combined with and fiscal autonomy can make it difficult for sub-national governments ability to be responsive to citizens needs and priorities within their localities Acknowledging that adequate fiscal resources and autonomy in decision-making of local governments are no guarantee that priority gender equality goals and issues will be effectively addressed locally. However, fiscal resources are a pre-requisite to any form of program implementation. In addition, Ebel and Yilmaz (2002) state that in many countries, intergovernmental transfer systems are often not formula based, with central governments deciding on the amount of transfer on a discretionary basis. For example, in a number of states in the former Soviet Union, the fiscal (and political) instability of the central state can delay transfers for months after a local budget is adopted and/or “fails” to communicate the amount of the transfer until well into the fiscal year. The result is that intergovernmental transfer systems are often not transparent and are subject to political manipulation, which can lead to uncertainties on the part of sub-national governments. Such uncertainties further discourage fiscal planning, and effective resource allocation that can respond to the needs of the poor and the marginalized. in many countries. Such activities by strong central governments can frustrate the ability of local citizens to participate. limitations put on autonomous sub-national government decision-making and citizen participation through strong central government controls on sub-national government activities can restrict the ability for local governments to be responsive to the needs of marginalized groups. In many countries, the nature of interaction communication between central and sub-national governments is through top-down. controls, which bind sub-national government entities in how they carry out governance processes often limiting the chance of effective citizen-based, results-oriented governance. Participation programs initiatives often fail because they are conceived by high-level government agents with little knowledge or interest to of participation needs and no interest see in ensuring that participation programs mechanisms actually work. Citizens and their direct representatives can be either be co-opted to support centrally devised programs, or kept out of the reform design stages all together. This can be particularly true for poorer, marginalized groups, such as poor women. Thus, local official and public understanding of the importance of technical issues such as revenue raising and spending cannot be overestimated. To achieve transparency and accountability, “knowing how and where the money flows are criticalto the quality of local democracy”(Sisk, 2002). Citizen interest in participation can be severely diminished when there are no clearly delineated responsibilities and government programs to inform citizens of their rights, and confusion exists between which level of government is responsible (fiscally and administratively). This is particularly germane to states of the former Soviet Union and countries in Central and Eastern Europe in which remnants of the communist system are not easily eradicated. Since the early 1990s, unique structural problems have complicated the transition from communist political and economic systems to democracy and market economies. Primary examples include unclear conceptions of the role of the state and difficulty of re-directing budgetary allocations (Verheijen, 2002). In Azerbaijan, the role of the state is particularly confusing. At the municipal level, local municipal councils coexist with local executive bodies appointed by the central state. Because executive bodies hold the actual power, “public” participatory practices are largely unknown (Garagezili, 2003).Policy and Institutional DimensionsWhile local governments are best positioned to respond to the immediate needs of their local community, central government agencies do have a substantial role to play in setting legislation, establishing regulatory frameworks, forming national policy and monitoring outcomes. In regards to gender dimensions of decentralization, the central government has a role on setting standards to ensure effective implementation of gender-oriented policies (Asian Resource Centre for Decentralization (2002). However, Oa key challenge to decentralization is achievinging a fine balance between centralized standards that are too restrictive on local government (which can reduce efficiency and increase service costs), and those that ensure compatible and consistent quality, and promote various service delivery arrangements that work. In regards to gender dimensions of decentralization: “In decentralized, federal systems, the central governments role on standards setting to ensure effective implementation of gender-oriented policies should be recognized.”(Asian Resource Centre for Decentralization (2002). . In regards to the gender dimension of decentralization:“In decentralized, federal systems, the central governments role on standards setting to ensure effective implementation of gender-oriented policies should be recognized.”(Asian Resource Centre for Decentralization (2002). “In decentralized, federal systems, the central governments role on standards setting to ensure effective implementation of gender-oriented policies should be recognized.”(Asian Resource Centre for Decentralization (2002). Most national constitutional frameworks outline the principle of gender equality Gender Equality has been defined in a variety of ways in the context of development. The World Banks Policy Research Report (2001) focuses on equality under the law, equality of opportunity (including equality of rewards for work and equality in access to human capital and oth