管理学原理--第四讲：组织行为.ppt

第四讲：组织行为,Organizational Behavior Behavior is defined as the actions of people. Organizational behavior is the study of the actions of people at work.,一个企业完成任务的基本行为方式包括哪些？,个体方式：职员被作为一个独立的个体来对待，工作任务、目标和报酬等以个体为导向。 自我管理的团队方式：这种组织方式通常被定义为多个个体的集合，每一个成员与其他成员拥有一个共同的目标，每一个成员的报酬依赖于整个团队的经营业绩。 层级组织的方式：某个人专职从事对其他成员的监督和协调工作。尽管大多数企业一般都采用一定形式的层级结构，但是在正式权威方面却有很大的差异。,三种完成任务的行为方式存在哪些差异？,主要表现在：成员之间相互联系的程度和协调成本的大小。 当任务不需要协调时，采用个体方式是比较适合的，例如设计工作； 当协调变得非常必要的时候，团队方式就更合适一些。这样，每一个成员的产出可以直接受益于成员之间的频繁接触、技能互补和团队本身所产生的利益（例如成员之间的信息共享和共同价值观）。 当按照团队方式很难对个体的产出进行监督和控制，当团队的规模达到到某种程度、协调的成本开始大大增加的时候，层级组织方式可能更为合适。,第十四章：个体行为 Individual Behavior,1、态度Attitudes 2、个性Personality 3、认知Perception 4、学习learning,Learning Objectives,You should learn to: Define the focus and goals of organizational behavior Describe the three components of an attitude Identify the role that consistency plays in attitudes,Learning Objectives,Explain the relationship between satisfaction and productivity Tell how managers can use the Myers-Briggs personality type framework and the big-five model of personality,Learning Objectives (cont.),Define emotional intelligence Describe attribution theory and its use in explaining individual behavior Identify the types of shortcuts managers use in judging others Explain how managers can shape employee behavior,Why Look At Individual Behavior?,Organizational Behavior (OB) concerned specifically with the actions of people at work addresses issues that are not obvious,The Organization as an Iceberg,Why Look At Individual Behavior (cont.),Focus of OB individual behavior - attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and motivation group behavior - norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict Goals of OB explain, predict, and influence behavior managers success depends on getting things done through other people,Attitudes,Attitude Definition evaluative statements concerning objects, people, or events three components cognitive - beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a person affective - emotion or feeling term attitude usually refers to this component behavioral - intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something,Attitudes (cont.),Job-Related Attitudes job satisfaction - employees general attitude toward her/his job job involvement - degree to which an employee identifies with her/his job degree of active participation in the job feeling that job performance is important to self-worth organizational commitment - employees loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization organizational citizen behavior (OCB) - discretionary behavior that is not part of the formal job requirements promotes effective functioning of the organization,Attitudes (cont.),Attitudes and Consistency people seek consistency: among their attitudes between their attitudes and behavior inconsistency gives rise to steps to achieve consistency alter attitudes or behavior develop rationalization for the inconsistency,present employee with questions that elicit how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization attitude score is the sum of responses to individual items,Attitude Surveys,Sample Attitude Survey,Implications for managers,Satisfaction-Productivity Controversy traditional belief was that happy workers were productive workers research evidence suggests that if satisfaction has a positive influence on productivity, it is small contingency factors have clarified the relationship between satisfaction and productivity effect of environmental factors that constrain employee behavior research designs do not permit conclusions about cause and effect,态度的概念,态度由三个部分组成: (1) 态度的认知成分由一个人所持有的信念、观点、知识或信息组成。 (2) 态度的情感成分是态度中的情绪或感受部分。 (3) 态度的行为成分是指以某种方式对某人或某事做出反应的行为。,与工作相关的态度,工作满意度（Job satisfaction）是人对其工作的一般态度。 工作投入（ Job involvement）是员工认可自己的工作，主动参与工作，认为工作绩效对自己的个人价值很重要的程度。 (3) 组织承诺（Organizational Commitment）是员工对组织的忠诚性、认可程度及参与程度。,对管理者的意义,有明显的证据表明，对于那些承诺和满意的员工来说，他们的离职率和缺勤率很低。 同时，那种为了提高生产率而以员工快乐为目标的做法可能会误入歧途。,Personality Personality is defined as a combination of psychological traits that classifies a person.(个性是个体的心理特质的综合) Predicting behavior from personality traits(根据个性特质预测行为),Personality,Predicting Behavior from Personality Traits Locus of Control internals - believe that they control their own destiny externals - believe their lives are controlled by outside forces less satisfied and involved with their jobs more alienated from the work setting Machiavellianism - people who are high on this trait: are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, believe that ends can justify the means are productive in jobs that require bargaining and have high rewards for success,Predicting Behavior from Personality Traits (cont.) Self-Esteem - degree of liking for oneself related to expectations for success high self-esteem individuals will take risks in job selection more satisfied with their jobs low self-esteem individuals susceptible to social influence Self-Monitoring - ability to adjust ones behavior to situational factors high self-monitors can present striking contradictions between their public persona and their private selves,Personality (cont.),君王论,在人类思想史上，没有一位思想家像马基雅维里那样受到如此尖锐的毁与誉的了。近5个世纪以来，他的名字始终与阴险狡诈、背信弃义联系在一起。因为他在自己的经典著作君主论中描述了一个意大利君主如何壮大自己、排挤他人的基本行为和做法，并且为许多政治家和野心家效仿和实践。,在君主论的开篇首页，马基雅维里提出，“君主国不是世袭的就是自己开创的”。只要不改变相应的政策和人们的生活方式，并且有足够的智慧应付突发事件，世袭的国家比较容易管理；而自己开创的新君主国，管理起来就困难重重。因为那些被征服的君主国在文化、语言和习惯等方面征服者有很大的差异，要有效地控制被征服的君主国，运气和努力是必须的。,最有力的办法是征服者进驻；其次是征服者在一或二个关键要地把守。,同时，马基雅维里在君主论中说过，“君主易变而且健忘，他随时准备改变自己的立场，只要对他有利，君主必须做到不仁，并且根据需要选择仁和不仁”。马基雅维里将人性的弱点毫无保留地揭示出来，希望人们理性地对待和顺势管理。,Predicting Behavior from Personality Traits (cont.) Risk-Taking - affects time required to make a decision how much information is required before making a choice Personality Types in Different Cultures a countrys culture can influence dominant personality characteristics of its people e.g., national cultures differ in the strength of locus of control,Personality (cont.),Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - four dimensions social interaction: Extrovert or Introvert preference for gathering data: Sensing or Intuitive preference for decision making: Feeling or Thinking style of making decisions: Perceptive or Judgmental,Personality (cont.),Personality Traits (cont.) Big-Five Model of Personality - traits include degree of: extraversion - sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness agreeableness - good-natured, cooperative, trusting conscientiousness - responsibility, dependability, persistence, and achievement orientation predicts job performance in a number of jobs emotional stability - calmness, enthusiasm, security openness to experience - imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity, and intellectualism predicts training competency,Emotional Intelligence (EI) self-awareness - aware of what youre feeling self-management - ability to manage ones emotions self-motivation - persistence in the face of setbacks empathy - ability to sense how others are feeling social skills - ability to handle the emotions of others,Personality (cont.),Implications for managers The major value of a manager understanding personality differences probably lies in employee selection.,个性特质（Personality traits）,控制点（Locus of Control） 权威主义（Authoritarianism） 马基雅维里主义（Machiaviellism） 自尊（Self esteem） 自我监控（Self monitoring） 冒险型（Risk taking）,个性评估,社会的相互作用 (性格外向或内向) 对资料收集的偏好（感觉或直觉）Preference for gathering data(sensing or intuitive) 对决策的偏好（感觉或思考）Preference for decision making(felling or thinking) 决策的风格（敏锐的或倾向于做出判断的）Style of making decision(perceptive or judgmental),对管理者的意义,管理者理解个性差异的主要价值可能在于选拔过程，管理者如果能在个性类型与职业的匹配性方面予以考虑，将会拥有更高绩效和更满意的员工。,Perception,Definition process by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions none of us sees reality we interpret what we see and call it reality,Factors That Influence Perception perceiver - individuals personal characteristics attitudes, personality, experience, expectations target - relationship of target to its background situation - time, location, light, color, and other environmental factors,Perception Challenges: What do you see?,Attribution Theory,used to explain how we judge people differently depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior develop explanations of why people behave in certain ways internal explanations - behavior under the control of the person external explanations - behavior the result of situational constraints e.g., chance, rules, custom,cause of behavior determined by: distinctiveness - whether person displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation less distinctiveness leads to internal attribution consensus - behavior of others in same situation high consensus leads to external attribution consistency - regularity with which person engages in the behavior greater consistency leads to internal attribution,Attribution Theory (cont.),Attribution Theory,errors and biases may distort attributions fundamental attribution error - tendency to explain behavior of others by: overestimating the influence of internal factors underestimating the influence of external factors self-serving bias - personal success attributed to internal factors personal failure attributed to external factors,Attribution Theory (cont.),Perception (cont.),Shortcuts Frequently Used in Judging Others make perceptual task easier can be valuable or lead to errors selectivity - portions of stimuli bombarding ones senses are selected based on interests, background, and attitudes of the perceiver assumed similarity - “like me” effect perception of other based on perceived similarities stereotyping - base perceptions of an individual on ones impressions of the group to which s/he belongs halo effect - general impression about a person is forged on the basis of a single characteristic,Implications for a managers Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions,not reality.,影响认知的因素,许多因素影响着认知的形成有时造成了知觉的失真，这些因素有： 认知者或人的特点，包括态度，个性，动机，兴趣，经验和期望。 被认知的标的或客体：目的的特点以及目的同其背景的关系影响认知。 认知发生的情境（地点，光，热，颜色等）,判断行为原因依据三个因素 (1) 区别性是指在众多场合下都表现出这种行为还是仅在某一特定情境下表现这一行为。 (2) 一致性是指每个人面对相似情境，对相同的行为都有相同的反应。 (3)一贯性是指人的行为的持续一贯性。,导致归因失真的错误或偏见,基本归因错误（Functional attribution error） 是指人们在评价他人行为时，低估外部因素的影响而高估内部因素的影响的倾向。 自我服务偏见（Self-serving bias ）是个体倾向把自己的成功归因为内部因素，而把失败归因于外部因素。,评价他人行为时常走的捷径,(1) 选择性接受（Selectivity）是指人们根据自己的兴趣、背景、态度和经验等对观察到的信息进行主动选择 的过程。 (2) 假设相似性（Assumed similarity）是假定别人和我们类似 。 (3) 刻板印象（Stereotyping）是以个体所在的团体知觉为基础对个体的判断。 (4) 晕轮效应（Halo effect）是根据个体的某个特征而建立对总体的印象。,对管理者的意义,管理者需要认识到，员工根据知觉而不是客观现实做出反应。,Learning,Definition any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience almost all complex behavior is learned Operant Conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences describes voluntary or learned behavior reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated pleasing consequences that follow a specific behavior increases the frequency of that behavior,Learning (cont.),Social Learning learning by observing other people and direct experience influence of model determined by: attentional processes - must recognize and attend to critical features of the model retention processes - must remember the models actions motor reproduction processes - performing actions observed in the model reinforcement processes - positive incentives necessary to motivate performance of the models actions,Learning (cont.),Shaping: A Managerial Tool shape behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired behavior shaping accomplished by: positive reinforcement - desired response is followed by something pleasant negative reinforcement - desired response followed by eliminating or withdrawing something unpleasant punishment - undesirable behavior followed by something unpleasant extinction - no rewards follow undesired response,Learning (cont.),Implications for Managers manage employee learning by means of rewards positive and negative reinforcement strengthen a desired behavior tend to increase its frequency punishment and extinction weaken an undesired behavior tend to decrease its frequency managers should serve as models set examples of the desired behavior,Implications for managers Managers can clearly benefit from understanding the learning process. Implications for individual: Individual learning Incremental learning Adaptive learning Developmental learning,社会学习理论 (SLT),社会学习理论认为，人们通过观察和直接经验进行学习。业已得到证实，榜样的影响是社会学习的核心。人们发现四个过程决定了榜样对个体学习的影响 (1) 注意过程（Attentional Process） (2) 保持过程（Retention process） (3) 动力复制过程（Motor re-production） (4) 强化过程（Reinforcement process）,四个过程,(1) 注意过程: 只有当人们认识到榜样的重要特点时，彩绘想榜样学习。 (2) 保持过程：榜样的影响取决于个体对榜样活动的记忆程度，即使当榜样不再真正出现时。 (3) 主动模仿过程：个体通过观察而能够执行榜样的活动。 (4) 强化过程：如果提供了积极的奖励，个体会被激励从事榜样的行为。,行为塑造,行为塑造是系统的强化每一连续步骤而使个体越来越趋近理想反应。这是一个有用的管理工具。行为塑造有四种方法： (1)积极强化（Positive reinforcement）; (2)消极强化（ Negative reinforcement）; (3)惩罚（ Punishment）; (4) 消除（Extinction）.,行为塑造的四种方式,(1) 积极强化是在一个行为发生后而出现的愉快的事情。 (2) 消极强化是中止或逃避不愉快事件的反应而获得奖励。 (3) 惩罚指对不希望出现的行为的处罚。 (4) 消除是指祛除任何维持行为的强化物的办法。,第十五章：组织和团队行为 UNDERSTANDING GROUPS AND TEAMS,Learning Objectives,You should learn to: Differentiate between formal and informal groups Describe the five stages of group development Identify how roles and norms influence an employees behavior,Learning Objectives,You should learn to: the key components in the group behavior model Identify the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making,Learning Objectives (cont.),You should learn to: Explain the increased popularity of teams in organizations Describe the four most common types of teams in organizations List the characteristics of effective teams Identify how managers can build trust,Understanding Group Behavior,Group two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals formal groups - established by the organization have designated work assignments and specific tasks different types exist informal groups - occur naturally in the workplace in response to the need for social contact,Examples of Formal Groups,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Stages of Group Development forming - people join the group either because of a work assignment or for some other benefit begin to define the groups purpose, structure, and leadership stage marked by much uncertainty storming - acceptance of the groups existence conflict over who will control the group norming - relationships and a sense of group identity develop group assimilates a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Stages of Group Development (cont.) performing - group structure is functional and accepted group energy has moved to task performance adjourning - group prepares to disband attention devoted to wrapping up activities group does not necessarily become more effective as it moves through the first four stages group effectiveness is a complex issue that is affected by factors other than developmental stage,Stages Of Group Development,Prestage,Stage I Forming,Stage II Storming,Stage III Norming,Stage V Adjourning,Stage IV Performing,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts Role - set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone who occupies a given position in a social unit group members have particular roles roles oriented towards task accomplishment or maintaining group member satisfaction individuals play multiple roles role conflict - individual confronted by different role expectations,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts (cont.) Norms - acceptable standards or expectations that are shared by the groups members each group has: its own unique set of norms common norms related to levels of effort and performance exert powerful influence on performance Conformity - acceptance by group makes some members susceptible to conformity pressures group norms push members toward conformity results in alignment of opinions,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts (cont.) Status - a prestige grading, position, or rank in a group may be conferred informally based on personal characteristics may be formally conferred Group Size - effect on behavior of group depends upon the type of outcome large groups - good for getting diverse input small groups - good at making use of information dispersion of responsibility in large groups leads to free rider tendency,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts (cont.) Group Cohesiveness - degree to which members are attracted to a group and share the groups goals relationship between cohesiveness and group effectiveness depends upon the alignment of group and organizational goals,Strong Increase in Productivity,Decrease in Productivity,No Significant Effect on Productivity,Moderate Increase in Productivity,Relationship Between Cohesiveness And Productivity,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts (cont.) Conflict Management conflict - perceived incompatible differences resulting in some form of interference or opposition differences may be real or not traditional view - conflict must be avoided human relations view - conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group conflict need not be negative conflict has the potential to be a positive force for performance,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts (cont.) Conflict Management (cont.) interactionist view - some conflict is absolutely necessary functional conflict - supports the goals of the work group and improves its performance dysfunctional conflict - prevents group from achieving its goals,Understanding Group Behavior (cont.),Basic Group Concepts (cont.) Conflict Management (cont.) type of conflict task conflict - content and goals of the work low-to-moderate levels are functional relationship c