《教你如何写议论文》PPT课件.ppt

Argumentation 2,Guided Construction of Writing Knowledge,Tasks today,1 Submit your passage and read others.(20) 2 Learn more about reasoning:induction and deduction(30) 3 Preparing a sort of debate on an authentic issue ( 40) 3 topics (6 groups) each present by ppt and followed by oral debate,if necessary, and evaluated by class),Recall,What are the components of argumentation? 1. Thesis statement (论点） 2. Arguments （论据） 3. Reasoning process （论证）,Writing steps when facing a controversial issue,Weighing an Argument - to establish the thesis statement (论点） Building an Argument-by confirming your own or refuting others with Arguments （论据) Refuting an Argument-In addition to your confirming your own ,many times you need to refute your opponents opinions.,Requirements for argumentation,1. A debatable point: something which can be viewed more than one angle.,2. Sufficient evidence Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics, and quotations from authorities.,3. Good logic Two ways of reasoning: 1)Inductive reasoning: You move from specific examples to a general statement. 2)Deductive reasoning: You move from a general statement to a specific conclusion.,What is inductive reasoning?,Summarize many observations to generalize to a conclusion (data large and representative),The misuse of induction,An inductive conclusion: unreliable quantity of the evidence hasty generalization Unqualified generalization post hoc (after this, because of this),Hasty Generalization,A generalization based on too little evidence or on exceptional or biased evidence. Republicans have lots of money. (Many Republicans dont have much money.) Sts local accent,Post Hoc,“After this, so because of this“the mistake of assuming that because one event follows another, the first must be the cause of the second. The new mayor took office last January and crime in the streets has already increased 25 percent. The assumption is that having the new mayor caused the increase in crime, an assumptions unlikely to be true.,Dicto Simpliciter (unqualified generalization),Following a rule without considering the important difference Exercise Time is money competition,What is deductive reasoning?,While inductive reasoning moves from particular cases to generalizations, deductive reasoning moves from general categories to conclusions about particular cases,When is a deductive argument valid?,A deductive argument is valid when the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Valid Premise 1: When Allison studies, she gets good grades. fact Premise 2: She is studying. fact Conclusion: Therefore, she will get good grades. Invalid Premise 1: When Allison studies, she gets good grades. fact Premise 2: She is getting good grades. fact Conclusion: Therefore, she is studying.,When is a deductive argument valid?,The invalid argument has acceptable premises because the premises are facts. The arguments conclusion, however, is wrong. It ignores other reasons for why Alison may get good grades (incredible luck, an easy schedule, etc.) Because the conclusion does not follow logically from the premises, the argument is invalid.,Logical fallacies,caused by invalid deductive reasoning: Non Sequitur Either . . . or Circular Reasoning,Non Sequitur (根据前提得出的)推断, 推理, 结论,A statement that does not follow logically from what has just been saida conclusion that does not follow from the premises. Faulty: Susan is smart; therefore she will receive good grades.( Many smart people do not receive good grades.),Either . . . or,Stating that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are more than two. Faulty: We have only two choices: ban nuclear weapons, or destroy the earth. (In fact, other possibilities exist.),Summary for deduction,A deductive conclusion may be judged true or false. If both premises are true, the conclusion is true if it is valid. If a premise is false, the conclusion is false, even if it is valid. If the argument contains an assumption, the writer must prove the truth of the assumption to establish the truth of the argument. Mountai highest of the world,For your reference Questions,What is a good thesis statement? What is good arguments? What is the good way of reasoning?,For your reference,1. A good thesis statement should not have: 1) 含混笼统（词语或概念的意义模糊） 2）概念混淆（把不同的概念当作同一概念） 3）分解的谬误（将集合体或整体意义分配给所属的个体或部分） 4）合成的谬误 （将个体或部分的意义归于由它组成的集合体或整体）,For your reference,What are supporting evidence? (正当、合理、一致）不应该： 非黑即白 （忽视第三种情况存在） 以偏概全 （以对所提观点的部分论证替代总体论证） 未证实假设 （未确证的假设做预测） 循环论证（以所主张的观点本身做论证的理由） 诉诸（恐惧、怜悯、起源、传统、权威、无知）人身攻击,For your reference,What are the main ways of reasoning? 不能： 1）特例概括（以特例为根据概括出一类对象的总体特征） 2）样本太小（支持结论的样本未满足样本容量要求） 3）机械概括 （忽视时间因素的影响） 4）错误类比 （缺乏相关性的类比推理） 5）单一原因 (将导致结果的多重原因简单归结为其中某一因素),Assignment,1 Should sex education be introduced early in school? 2 Should every teacher be elected by students for every course? 3 Should students be allowed to skip class once they take part in the final examination? 4 Should famous mountains build cable-car system? 5 Smoking Ban in Public Venue in China! Do you think it will work successfully? 6 Should students be allowed to rent house outside the campus?,7 Nuclear energy 8 Private school 9 School uniform 10 Postpone retire age,Presentation Steps,1.Introduction (issue to be addressed,create interest)