环境科学与工程专业英语教学课件-2：英文科技论文结构与表达技巧.ppt

7/29/2019,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,1,English Scientific Paper,Part 1: The formation of a paper Part 2: The description for each section Part 3: Writing scientific English some hints,7/29/2019,2,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Part 1: The formation of a paper (for a research paper),Section 1: Title（题目） Section 2: Authors（作者） Section 3: Abstract（摘要） Section 4: Keywords（关键词） Section 5: Introduction（引言） Section 6: Materials and Methods（材料与方法） Section 7: Results（结果） Section 8: Discussion（讨论） Section 9: Acknowledgements（致谢） Section 10: References（参考文献）,7/29/2019,3,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Sample Paper (a standard research paper),题目,作者,地址,收稿与接受时间,7/29/2019,4,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,摘要,关键词,7/29/2019,5,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,电子文献数据库中的论文提纲,7/29/2019,6,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,7/29/2019,7,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,7/29/2019,8,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,7/29/2019,9,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,7/29/2019,10,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,7/29/2019,11,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,7/29/2019,12,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Part 2: The description for each section,Section 1: Title Requirements: concise, striking, reflection of the paper core, if necessary, subheading might be added., Check styles in the journal, using some published papers as examples. Some options: A. Descriptions, e.g. Estimation of phosphorus fertilizer requirements of wheat in southern Australia . Descriptions to be avoided: Effects of. e.g. Effects of applied calcium on salinity tolerance of wheat - very general & gives little information! B. Statements, e.g. Applied calcium can improve salinity tolerance of field-grown wheat.,7/29/2019,13,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,C. Two-part descriptions or statements, e.g. Ectomycorrhizas(内生菌根)of the Myrtaceae: fungal fruit-body production in forest plantations in southern China. To be avoided: Ectomycorrhizas of the Myrtaceae. 1: Fungal fruit-body production etc Part 2 may never appear D. Questions, e.g. Does applied calcium improve salinity tolerance of field-grown wheat? Can be used if previous literature is inconclusive or controversial,7/29/2019,14,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Title: 1 It should cover the main aims and/or message 2 It should appeal to your audience 3 It should not be too long, cannot exceed a certain number of characters 4 Avoid titles with a numbered subtitle,7/29/2019,15,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 2: Authors Single author or coauthor Detailed communication address for all author: from small to large: e.g. College of Biology and Environmental Science, Jishou University, Jishou, 416000 Hunan, PR China. Labeled as letter a, b, c, for authors from different organizations Corresponding author: labeled as asterisk * If you have moved, also add “present address”,7/29/2019,16,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,What is the order of the authors of your paper? The person who did the work and wrote the manuscript should be first (=senior) author Corresponding author is the one that will be the contact for the journal and correspondence that may follow after publication Senior author and corresponding author can be the same The research-team leader appears as the last author,7/29/2019,17,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 3: Abstract The abstract is actually the first section of a report or paper, coming after the title and before the introduction. The abstract is a distillation of a paper, it aims to briefly elucidate the study purpose, experimental methods and results, and to draw a conclusion or give some hypothesis and recommendations. In a word, the abstract provides the reader with a brief preview (简短的预览) of your study. Abstracts from almost all fields of study are written in a very similar way. The types of information included and their order are very conventional.,7/29/2019,18,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Some background information The purpose or activity of your study The methodology used The principal results Conclusion or recommendation or hypothesis,Order of Typical Elements Included in an Abstract,7/29/2019,19,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Abstract: 1 Check the style required by the journal 2 Abstracts are usually written to be as brief and concise as possible. For journal articles the editor often establishes a word limit for the abstract that authors can not exceed. In order to shorten an abstract to satisfy such limitations, you can eliminate or combine much of the information shown in the previous box. 3 Do not use references in this part,7/29/2019,20,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Abstract: 4 The reduced abstract typically focuses on only two or three elements, with the emphasis placed on the results of the study. Information concerning the purpose and method is presented first (background information is not included). 5 Then the most important results are summarized. Finally, conclusions and recommendations may be included in one or two sentences. 6 The verb tenses used in the abstract should be the past tense, except for the conclusion in which the present or past tense can be used.,7/29/2019,21,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Sample Abstract,Resource: Cecilia Berg et al., The avian egg as a test system for endocrine disrupters: effects of diethylstilbestrol (Des, 二乙基已烯雌酚) and ethynylestradiol (EE2, 乙炔基雌二醇) on sex organ development. The Science of the Total Environment, 1999, 233, 57-66.,7/29/2019,22,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 4: Keywords It may include experimental subjects, and principal terms of measurements. Requirements: 1 Choose a limited number of keywords that adequately cover your research, usually about 5, can be added after you have written the paper 2 No need to repeat words or phrases in the title, unless you like to be absolutely safe computer search engines should find keywords in titles,7/29/2019,23,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,3 Keywords must be useful, so avoid general words or phrases : e.g. plant nutrition is better than just nutrition, soil pollution is better than just pollution etc 4 You can give information not in titles, e.g. names of plants studied, additional mineral elements measured, even locations of surveys 5 Imagine yourself doing a search for information about the field of your paper: are your keywords helpful? 6 Arrange alphabetically,7/29/2019,24,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 5: Introduction The Introduction serves as an orientation for readers of the report or paper, giving them the perspective they need to understand the detailed information coming in later sections. It mainly includes the study status and some unsolved problems, the study purpose, and the needed experimental methodology. The Introduction can be divided into five parts or stages: In Stage I, the author establishes a context (背景), or frame of reference, to help readers understand how the research fits into a wider field of study. In Stage I of your Introduction you establish a setting for your research topic.,7/29/2019,25,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 5: Introduction In Stage II, you review the findings of other researchers who have already published in your area of interest. For this reason, Stage II is often called the review of literature. The review of literature serves three important functions. First, it continues the process started in Stage I of giving your readers background information needed to understand your study. Second, it assure your readers that you are familiar with the important research that has been carried out in your area. Third, it establishes your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field.,7/29/2019,26,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 5: Introduction In Stage III, IV and V, After you have presented a contextual setting and discussed the previous work of other researchers, you use the final part of the Introduction to focus the attention of the reader on the specific research problem you will be dealing with in the body of your report or paper, and propose the hypothesis you want to test in the study. This is done in three additional stages, which we designate as III, IV and V. Stage III indicates an area that is not treated in the previous literature, but that is important from the point of view of your own work; Stage IV formally announces the purpose and hypothesis of your research; and Stage V indicates possible benefits or applications of your work.,7/29/2019,27,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Introduction: 1 The first sentence is important to attract the editor, reviewers and readers and it is the most difficult to write 2 It must set the scene i.e. the context of the paper and the questions being asked 3 It depends on the chosen journal: specialist or more general; e.g.,7/29/2019,28,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Mycorrhizas (菌根) colonize the vast majority of plants worldwide and are important in transferring phosphate and other nutrients to plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are the most common type (Smith & Read 1997). However, the role of mycorrhizas in the transfer of other nutrients is not well established, and this is especially the case for toxic soil elements such as cadmium. Cadmium pollution of soils is an increasing problem in many countries, including China. The first two sentences are not needed for the specialist journal Mycorrhiza. The paper can start: The role of mycorrhizas in transfer to plants of soil nutrients other than phosphorus is not etc.,7/29/2019,29,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Introduction: 4 For a journal specializing in environmental pollution, the paper might start: Cadmium pollution of soils is an increasing problem in many countries, including China. Many of the plants both in natural and managed ecosystems are colonized by mycorrhizal fungi that transfer a range of mineral nutrients to their hosts. It is not yet well established if cadmium affects mycorrhizal colonization, or is transported via mycorrhizas. etc. Always write the Introduction bearing in mind the research speciality (expertise) of the readers,7/29/2019,30,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Introduction: 5 The Introduction proceeds to review briefly information relevant to your paper, highlighting any gaps, uncertainties or inconsistencies in previous research. 6 It must end with a brief statement giving the aims of the research, e.g. including (in an experimental study) plant species used, important techniques etc, or (in a field survey), the location, type of survey, and why it was done.,7/29/2019,31,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Introduction: 7 When you have written the whole paper go back to the Introduction, and check that it does lead into the rest of the paper. 8 Especially: re-read the first sentence: is it still really necessary? Can you think of a better one to set the scene?,7/29/2019,32,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 6: Materials and Methods,After the Introduction, the second major section of the experimental research report or paper, often labeled Methods, describes the steps you followed in conducting your study and the Materials you used at each step.,Methods The method section is useful to readers who want to know how the methodology of your study may have influenced your results, or who are interested in replicating or extending your study. The main part of the method section is a description of the procedural steps used in your study and the materials employed at each step. However, other elements are commonly described in this section as well.,7/29/2019,33,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Information Elements Included In Methods - Experimental design - Population/Sample - Location - Restrictions/Limiting Conditions - Sampling Technique - Procedures - Materials - Variables - Statistical Treatment,7/29/2019,34,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Materials Although the second major section of the experimental research report or paper is often called “Methods“, it is sometimes titled “Materials and Methods”. This combined title indicates that researchers generally describe these two aspects together when they write up their research. That is, they simultaneously describe any equipment or other materials they used with each step in their procedure. The most important aspect of the Materials and Methods is that they should be detailed in such a way that other people are able to replicate your study exactly as you did.,7/29/2019,35,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Materials and Methods: 1 Must allow the reader to 1) understand what you did, and 2) repeat it exactly, using the same methods. 2 Explains details that may be unfamiliar (e.g. soil types analytical methods, locations of field-work). 3 Explains replication & also sampling methods (e.g. in field surveys) 4 Tables may be helpful to summarize complex properties 5 Give equations used in calculations 6 Explain statistical procedures 7 Give appropriate references throughout,7/29/2019,36,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 7: Results,The third major section of the experimental research report is called Results, in which you present the findings of your study but never comment on them, except that a section of Results and Discussion is presented instead. The Results section of the report presents the findings of the study in both figures and in written text. Figures (graphs, tables, and diagrams) present the complete findings in numerical terms, while the accompanying text helps the reader to focus on the most important aspects of the results and to interpret them.,7/29/2019,37,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Results: 1 Sometimes combined with Discussion section 2 Do not repeat Methods, if Results section is separate from Discussion, do not discuss results here 3 Select the results that are relevant to the story in this paper 4 Tables, Figures or both? Be consistent as much as possible, but take into account the impact of data as presented 5 Do not include both a Table and a Figure that show the same data 6 In the text, mention the results in the same order as in the Table or Figure; but do not repeat the detailed information (e.g. all the values),7/29/2019,38,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,More on Tables: Do not clutter with detail (e.g. too many columns too close together; too many decimal places that are not needed),More on Figures: Figures can have more impact; e.g. bar diagrams or graphs with time-courses but can also be too cluttered (e.g. too many narrow bars too close together) If results show no significant differences between some treatments, just say so in text; e.g. shoot P concentrations were 3.0-3.5 mg kg-1; there were no significant differences between treatments (results not shown) this unclutters tables or figures.,7/29/2019,39,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,More on statistics: Take appropriate advice when designing experiments, field surveys etc Do not make claims of differences, maximum values etc, without statistical evidence; give standard errors, and/or probabilities as appropriate Do not under-analyze results: e.g. do not rely on global Anovar. Example: in a study of 4 plant varieties with 4 levels of added NaCl - Ca addition significantly increased tolerance to soil salinity. OK, but was this so in all 4 varieties? Did the Ca addition at different NaCl levels affect the 4 varieties equally? Analyse individual treatments! Do not over-analyze results: not all small differences or interactions may be biologically significant or global a difficult decision!,7/29/2019,40,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,More on experimental design 3 treatments, only 1 pot per treatment, 5 plants per pot, & analyzing separately the individual plants in the pot for means and standard errors no true replication of pots b. comparing 1 forest & 1 adjacent grassland, with few samples, & claiming the results represent the whole forest & grassland no consideration of local site variables in forest or soil,7/29/2019,41,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 8: Discussion,We look at the fourth section of the experimental research report or paper. Usually titled Discussion, it is the last major section of the report or paper. In the Discussion section you step back and take a broad look at your findings and your study as a whole. As in the Introduction, researchers use the Discussion section to examine their work in the large context of their field.,7/29/2019,42,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Section 8: Discussion,The most difficult part! The major contents of Discussion should concentrate on: 1) the relevance of the results to the proposed hypothesis; 2) comparisons between your results and those published ones, and discussion on the possible reasons or mechanisms for the differences between them.,7/29/2019,43,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Discussion: 1 First: summarize the results do not repeat them in detail; the reader can remember the details 2 Discuss results in relation to the relevant issues raised in the Introduction 3 But: do not write a long review with many additional references 4 Emphasize interesting differences, or developments from, the earlier work, e.g. Whereas Smith (1990) found that additional Zn decreased Cu uptake by wheat, we have found or: the present study showed that Zn decreased Cu uptake by barley. The reasons for this difference are unresolved. They may be due to etc. Keep speculation limited.,7/29/2019,44,Dr.Taowu Ma Jishou University,Notes for Discussion: 5 Some journals allow subheadings; useful if you have a lot of results that you want to discuss separately 6 But do not go into results in detail discuss their relevance to the issues raised in the Introduction 7 Now go back to the Introduction to check the issues raised! 8 Possibly suggest useful future work 9 Give (briefly) the main conclusions (with