《从主位到述位》PPT课件.pptVIP

From Theme to Thematization,主位作为小句信息的出发点，在语篇的组织和发展中发挥着重要的作用。就主位成分的确定而言，目前存在着不同的观点。同时，根据不同的分类标准，主位被划分为不同的类型。因此，有必要对主位这一概念以及不同类型主位的语篇功能进行梳理，并对主位的生成机制，即主位化，进行探讨。讲座主要包括以下几个方面： 主位的确定 主位与语篇的展开模式 主位与述位的互动 标记主位 复项主位的结构模式 宏观主位与超级主位 强势主位 主位化,1. 主位、主位结构、信息结构,柏拉图（c. 427-347 BC）以意义为基础将词划分为主词（noma）和述词（rhma）两大类。 这两个词类分别与现代语言学中的名词和动词相对应，这一划分似乎与功能语言学中的主位（theme）和述位（rheme）有着相同的渊源关系。,First proposed by Mathesius in 1939, the Theme is “that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds” (translated by Firbas 1964: 268). Combining Approach: the concepts of thematic and information structure are combined. (Fries 1981: 117),According to Halliday (1994: 37), Theme is “the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the clause is concerned”. Halliday (1970: 161): The peg on which the message is hung. Fries (1993: 338): Themes provides “a framework for the interpretation of the clause”. In English, this element always takes the first position of a clause. The room is much bigger than I expected. Unfortunately, the train was late. On Sunday, we get up late.,Separating Approach: the concepts of thematic and information structure are separated. (Fries 1981: 117) Information which is known or at least obvious in the given situation is interpreted as Given in the opposition Given-New. On the other hand, information from which the speaker proceeds in his discourse is called Theme and enters into the structural relation Theme-Rheme. (Fries 1983),Halliday （1967）,Given: What you were talking about or What I was talking about Theme: What I am talking about or What I am talking about now The two do not necessarily coincide.,Halliday (1994),In English, the clause is organized textually into two simultaneous message lines, one of Theme + Rheme, and one of Given + New. Theme + Rheme is oriented towards the speaker, i.e. it presents information from the speakers angle. Given + New is oriented towards the listener, i.e. it presents information from the hearers angle.,The Theme is what I, the speaker choose to take as my point of departure. The Given is what you, the listener, already know about or have accessible to you. (Halliday & Matthiessen 2004: 93),The Theme and New are realized in quite different ways: the Theme by first position in the clause; the New prosodically, by greatest pitch movement in the tone group. Theme + Rheme is realized by constituent sequence; Given + New is realized by intonation. (Martin 1992: 434),Divergent cases:,Halliday (1967): The two do not necessarily coincide. (a) New Theme + New Rheme: A farmer in Barsetshire has found a Roman chamberpot. (b) New Theme + Given Rheme: No one has ever turned lead into gold. A chemist in Barchester has done it. (c) Given Theme + Given Rheme: Our local chemist was trying to turn lead into gold. Hes done it.,2. 主位的确定,Thematic Systems (Thompson 2004: 164),First position: which suggests that Theme is a structural element. Where is the boundary? Just how much of what comes first in a clause counts as Theme? (Eggins 1994: 275-6) That with which the clause is concerned: which suggests that Theme is a message component. What is the clause about? Grammatical subject? Topic? Any other?,Different approaches to Theme (Berry 1996; Thompson 2007: 674) The first ideational element hypothesis (Halliday 1994) Everything up to and including the first experiential constituent: a participant, circumstance or process. The experiential element is obligatory in Theme. The theme must contain one and only one experiential element. Once you have identified an experiential element in a clause, you can consign all the remaining clause constituents to the Rheme role, hence the boundary between Theme and Rheme (Eggins 1994: 277).,The subject hypothesis (Enkvist 1973; Downing 1991; Ravelli 1995): everything up to and including the subject The pre-verb hypothesis: everything preceding the verb The lexical verb hypothesis (Berry 1996): everything up to and including the lexical verb,Theme is not a constituent but rather a region of the clause, a thematic zone (Gomez-Gonzalez 2001: 132).,Why is the boundary not clear-cut? （Thompson 2007: 673）,Halliday (1994: 337) the wave of thematic prominence diminishing and being replaced by the crescendo of the wave of information focus in New. Information flows through a text in pulses rather than being associated with specific constituents; the phenomenon of Theme is thus wave-like.,(Given ) New diminuendo crescendo Theme ( Rheme) focus From speaker to listener: the wave-like effect of thematic and focal prominence (Halliday 1994: 337) The wave of thematic prominence diminishing and being replaced by the crescendo of the wave of information focus in New,(Martin 1992: 22),Unit of analysis,Clause: T-unit: Sentence:,T-unit,minimally terminable unit Often, but not always, a T-unit is a sentence a T-unit is a dominant clause and its dependent clauses: as Hunt said, it is “one main clause with all subordinate clauses attached to it” (Hunt 1965:20). The following elements were counted as one T-unit: a single clause, a matrix plus subordinate clause, two or more phrases in apposition, and fragments of clauses produced by ellipsis. Co-ordinate clauses were counted as two t-units. Elements not counted as t-units include back channel cues such as mhm and yeah, and discourse boundary markers such as okay, thanks or good. False starts were integrated into the following t-unit (Young 1995:38).,Clause-based analysis (Halliday): typically highlights experiential continuities in the text T-unit-based and sentence-based analysis: typically reflect the overall organization and change of direction more strongly.,Clause-level Themes: When Napoleon attacked Prussia in 1908, a Polish popular insurrection broke out in his support as he advanced on Moscow. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw, a sovereign Polish state which consisted of former Polish territories which had been annexed by Prussia. However, when Napoleon lost his war with Russia in 1812, Poland was again partitioned. T-unit Themes: When Napoleon attacked Prussia in 1908, a Polish popular insurrection broke out in his support as he advanced on Moscow. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw, a sovereign Polish state which consisted of former Polish territories which had been annexed by Prussia. However, when Napoleon lost his war with Russia in 1812, Poland was again partitioned.,The T-unit approach (or sentence-based analysis) clearly highlights the chronological organization, with three marked temporal Themes. This is largely obscured in the clause-by-clause approach; what comes out instead is the focus on the main participants, Napoleon and Poland (Poland is missing completely from the T-unit Themes) (Thompson 2007: 680-681),Extension,Halliday The Subject Theme, on the other hand, typically serves to maintain the topic of the text.,Contextual frames include circumstantial Adjuncts and subordinate clauses in initial position, reporting clause (the Subject of the reported clause serves the primary continuative function) An alternative way of identifying Theme (Thompson 2004: 174),When Napoleon attacked Prussia in 1908, a Polish popular insurrection broke out in his support as he advanced on Moscow. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw, a sovereign Polish state which consisted of former Polish territories which had been annexed by Prussia. However, when Napoleon lost his war with Russia in 1812, Poland was again partitioned. By extending Theme to Subject, a Polish popular insurrection, Napoleon and Poland will be added to the T-unit Themes. This way of analysis tracks both overall organization and continuity. Thompson (2007: 690): Maximal Theme,To sum up,The boundary of Theme is inherently imprecise and the limits adopted for any particular study will depend at least to some extent on the analysts purposes and on contextual factors. (Thompson 2007: 675) To avoid confusion, I suggest we keep to the principle of the first ideational element hypothesis, or take it as the baseline in Thematic analysis. Extension is possible for certain research purposes.,3. Functions of Theme,Dane (1974) suggests that Theme has two functions: (a) connecting back and linking in to the previous discourse, maintaining a coherent point of view (b) serving as a point of departure for the further development of the discourse. 从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在给小和尚讲故事。老和尚说。,More than that,Theme is an enabling resource: it constructs ideational and interpersonal meanings as information that can be shared by speaker and addressee; and it enables this sharing by providing the resources for the exchange of meaning in text. (Fries 1995: 22),Theme is the point of departure for the message, and that which locates and orients the clause within its context (Halliday & Matthiessen 2004: 64). The way discourse unfolds is largely determined by the choice of the clause constituent as the theme, because thematic choice not only reflects how the message is presented, but also locates and orients the clause within an ideational and/or interpersonal framework.,Matthiessen (1995: 514): Theme establishes “a local context” for the clause, showing how the information in the message is to be located in the ideational and interpersonal context being constructed in the text. Martin (1992: 436): Theme scaffolds the rhetorical structure of a text.,Themes reflect the method of development of a text (Fries 1981, 1983) The addresser makes the text content easier to process for the addressee by manipulating the Themes effectively.,Thompson (2004: 165): four main, related functions,Signalling the maintenance or progression of what the text is about at that point: This is especially done through the choice of Subject as unmarked Theme: maintenance is conducted by keeping to the same Theme as the preceding clause, progression often by selecting a constituent from the preceding Rheme.,Specifying or changing the framework for the interpretation of the following clause (or clauses): This is mostly carried out by the choice of marked Theme, especially Adjunct or clause, or by including textual or interpersonal elements in Theme. A heavy Subject Theme, giving a large a mount of information, can also be used for this purpose.,Signalling the boundaries of sections in the text: This is often effected by changing from one type of Theme choice to another. In many cases, there may be a number of successive Themes (typically three a thematic triplet) of different types: For example, a summative Theme (e.g. All this), followed by one that signals a change of framework, followed by one which signals the start of the new framework.,1 Banks are not ordinarily prepared to pay out all accounts; 2 they rely on depositors not to demand payment all at the same time. 3 If depositors should come to fear that a bank is not sound, that it cannot pay off all its depositors, then that fear might cause the depositors to appear on the same day. 4 If they did, the bank could not pay all the accounts. 5 However, if they did not all appear at once, then there would be always funds to pay those who wanted their money when they wanted it. 6 Mrs. Elsie Vaught has told us of a terrifying bank run that she experienced. 7 One day, in December of 1925 several banks failed to open in a city where Mrs. Vaught lived. 8 The other banks anticipated a run the next day, 9 and so the officers of the bank in which Vaught worked as a teller had enough fund on hand to pay off as many depositors as might apply. 10 The officers simply instructed the tellers to pay on demand. 11 Next morning a crowd gathered in the bank and on the sidewalk outside. 12 The length of the line convinced many that the bank could not possibly pay off everyone. 13 People began to push and then to fight for places near the tellers windows. 14 Clothing was torn and 15 limbs broken, 16 but the jam continued for hours. 17 The power of the panic atmosphere is evident in the fact that two tellers, though they know that the bank was sound and could pay out all depositors, nevertheless withdrew the funds in their own accounts. 18 Mrs. Vaught says that she had difficulty restraining herself from doing the same.,T1R1 T2 (=T1)R2 T3 (=R2)R3 T4 (=R2)R4 T5 (=R2)R5 T6R6 T7 (=R6)R7 T8 (=T7)R8 T9 (=T7)R9 T10 (=T7)R10 T11R11 T12 (=R11)R12 T13 (=T12)R13 T14 (=T12)R14 T15 (=T12)R15 T16 (=T12)R16 T17R17 T18 (=T6)R18 （朱永生 1995）,Signalling what the speaker thinks is a viable/useful/important starting point: This is done by repeatedly choosing the same element to appear in Theme (a particular participant, the speakers evaluation, elements which signal interaction with the hearer. e.g. evaluative enhanced Theme,4. Functions of Rheme,Theme is the point of departure of the message. Rheme is the remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme is developed. How does Theme interact with Rheme in the making of meaning?,Fries (1981),If a text is perceived as having a single method of development, then the words which contribute to the expression of that method of development will occur Thematically within the T-units of that text segment. If a text segment is perceived as expressing a single point, then the words which contribute to the expression of that point will occur within the Rheme of the component T-units of that text segment.,Fries（1994）,There is a correlation between Thematic position and Given information on the one hand, and Rhematic position and New information on the other. It is hypothesized that writers use position at he end of the clause to indicate the newsworthy information to their readers and that they use the beginnings of their clauses to orient their readers to the message which will come in the rest of the clause.,Fries (1994) coined the term N-Rheme to indicate the last constituent of the clause, i.e. the newsworthy part of the clause. We should expect the content of the N-Rheme to correlate with the goals of the text as a whole, the goals of the text segment within those larger goals, and the goals of the sentence and clause as well. Theme is the orienter to the message conveyed by the clause.,Success Story 1) Yesterday afternoon, Frank Hawkins was telling me about his experiences as a young man. 2) Before he retired, Frank was the head of a very large business company, 3) but as a boy, he used to work in a small shop. 4) It was his job to repair bicycles 5) and at that time, he used to work fourteen hours a day. 6) He saved money for years 7) and in 1958, he bought a small workshop of his own. 8) In his twenties, Frank used to make spare parts for aero planes. 9) At that time he had two helpers. 10) In a few years the small workshop had become a large factory which employed seven hundred and twenty-eight people. 11) Frank smiled when he remembered his hard early years and the long road to success (L. G. Alexander, 1997, New Concept English (New Edition), Students Book 2),N-Rhemes in each T-unit,1) his experiences as a young man 2) the head of a very large business company 3) used to work in a small shop 4) repair bicycles 5) used to work fourteen hours a day 6) saved money for years 7) bought a small workshop of his own 8) used to make spare parts for aero planes 9) had two helpers 10) had become a large factory which employed seven hundred and twenty-eight people 11) when he remembered his hard early years and the long road to success,Analysis of the ZPG text (Fries 1994),Discourse goals of the fund-raising text: the value of the project; the reactions of non-ZPG people. This description will include the reaction of the three primary groups: (a) public officials; (b) members of the media; (c) the public the need for the help; the urgency of the need for help Symbols in the analysis of the text: Bold: indicate the theme of the clause Italics: indicate the N-rheme of the clause Numbering: Capital letters indicate paragraphs; Arabic numbers indicate punctuated sentences or other segments; Small letters indicate clauses within a sentence.,B4 At 7:00 A.M. on October 25, our phones started to ring. B5 Calls jammed our switchboard all day. B6a Staffers stayed late into the night, B6b answering questions B6c and talking with reporters from newspapers, radio stations, wire services and TV stations in every part of the country. C7a When we released the results of ZPGs 1985 Urban Stress Test, C7b we had no idea wed get such an overwhelming response. C8 Media and public reaction has been nothing short of incredible! D9 At first, the deluge of calls came mostly from reporters eager to tell the public about Urban Stress Test results and from outraged public officials who were furious that we had blown the whistle on conditions on their cities. E10 Now, we are hearing from concerned citizens in all parts of the country who want to know what they can do to hold local officials accountable for tackling population-related problems that threaten public health and well-being. F11a ZPGs 1985 Urban Stress Test, F11b, is the nations first survey of how population-linked pressures affect U.S. cities. F11b created after months of persistent and exhaustive research, F12 It ranks 184 urban areas on 11 different criteria ranging from crowding and birth rates to air quality and toxic wastes. G13 The Urban Stress Test translates complex, technical data into an easyto-use action tool for concerned citizens, elected officials and opinion leaders. G14a But to use it well, G14b we urgently need your help. H15a Our small staff is being swamped with requests for more information H15b and our modest resources are being stretched to the limit.,I16 Your support now is critical. I17 ZPGs 1985 Urban Stress Test may be our best opportunity ever to get the population m