l语义学第十二讲指称意义.ppt

第十二讲,指称意义,Natural Language Processing, NLP) formal representation information extraction machine translation Summarization human-computer interfaces,Mary went to the cinema on Thursday. She didnt like the film. Anaphora; anaphor; antecedent; anaphoric form; referring expression; endophora; exophora; cataphora; Cohesion; coherence; co-referential; On his arrival in the capital, the Secretary of State declared support for the government.,Definition,Reinhart (1999) claims that: “The term anaphora is used most commonly in theoretical linguistics to denote any case where two nominal expressions are assigned the same referential value or range.”,One noun phrase depends for its interpretation on the other noun phrase. Another definition is the following from Carter (1987). According to this definition, anaphora is “(.) the special case of cohesion where the meaning (sense and/or reference) of one item in a cohesive relationship (the anaphor) is, in isolation, somehow vague or incomplete, and can only properly be interpreted by considering the meanings of the other item(s) in the relationship (the antecedents).”,回指类型,代词回指（Pronominal anaphora） 句子回指（Sentential anaphora） Last week, we went out to the lake near my cottage. It was a lot of fun. 约束回指（bound anaphora） 约束回指（有时也称约束变项回指, bound variable anaphora) 是当先行名词短语被量化时出现的回指现象。如下列所示： (1.3) No one would put the blame on himself.,Every farmer who owns a donkey, beats it.,有定名词短语回指（Definite noun phrase anaphora） John was run over by a truck. When he woke up, the nurses were nice to him. 零形回指 (zero/null anaphora) There are two roads to eternity, a straight and narrow, and a broad and crooked.,a. 有人等得不耐烦， b. 就骂起来了。 c. 鲁班看了， d. 就问：。,Selection of referring expressions,1. 临近原则与一致原则的互动 根据临近原则(the principle of proximity), 在前指照应中, 前指词一般都倾向于指称与其最为接近的、线性距离最短的先行词, 因为临近先行词在语篇中显突性较高, 可及性程度较强。例如:,The art of living does not consist in preserving and clinging to a particular mood, of “happiness”, but in allowing happiness to change its form without being disappointed by the change; for happiness, like a child must be allowed to grow up. (引自刘宓庆, 1998: 462),一致原则, 即如果某一所指相对于该语篇域而成为主题时, 在重述时应尽量保持其主题地位不变 。 Penrod was doing something very unusual and rare, something almost never accomplished except by colored people or by a boy in school on a spring day; he was doing really nothing at all. He was merely a state of being.,A man was quietly walking down the street, when he was joined by another man. The man said:. . . (引自 Jaszczolt, 2002: 840),2. 语境与可及性的互动 a. Theres a cat in the yard. Its eating a mouse. b. Theres a cat in the yard. # The cat is eating a mouse. (引自 Epstein, 2002: 340),Theres a cat and a dog in the yard. The cat is eating a mouse. Decontextualized（语境弱化 ）,百科语境与可及性的互动 John was arrested by Mike yesterday; he had just stolen a wallet.,物理语境与可及性的互动 物理语境指的是交际的具体场合和现场的物理环境, 可以表现为动作、表情、物体、声音、气味等等。在前指选择中, 它可以和可及性之间产生互动作用。请看下例: If John talks to some partygoers, the CH ILDREN will laugh at him. (引自 Krahmer and Van Deemter, 1998:364),加重音是一种较为特殊的物理语境调节手段, 加重音的前指形式可促使听者认为是在指称一个新的语篇实体(Dahan et al. ,2002: 293), 从而降低了原所指的可及性, 显凸了语篇中的新所指。,语言语境与可及性的互动 The mother picked up the baby. She had been ironing all afternoon. 此句中的“the mother”显然占据了话题地位, 因此可选择“she”这样的代词来指称先行词“the mother”。 然而, 篇章话题并非在任何情况下都容易确立, 如: Jenny put the cup on the plate and broke it.,Jenny went window shopping yesterday and spotted a nice cup. She wanted to buy it, but she had no money with her. Nevertheless, she knew she would be shopping the following day, so she would be able to buy the cup then. The following day, she went to the shop and bought the coveted cup. However, once back home and in her kitchen, she put the cup on a plate and broke it. . .,常规关系与关联原则的互动,A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The addressee was illegible. A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The signature was clearly an imitation and the greeting was in the wrong place. A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The postman must have deposited it in the morning and the secretary the housekeeper must have taken it up in the afternoon.,?A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The rubber band was broken. ?A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The preface was slipshod. ?A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The waiter must have taken it up in the morning.,在某些情况下, 当言者拟选用的前指成分与先行成分之间缺乏常规关系时, 仍可使用此前指成分, 因为言者相信听者会依据关联原则 (principle of relevance) (Sperber and W ilson,1986)对前指词与先行词之间的关系进行重构, 从而建立一种临时性的常规关系表征或语篇心理模型。如:,Paul put his saxophone down. The reed was cracked.,直接回指与间接回指,We arrived in a village. It was large. We arrived in a village. The church was large.,常规关系(stereotypical relations)和非传递性(non-transitivity)是间接前指照应关系的两个重要限制因素 。 * We arrived in a village. The candelabras of the altar were remarkable only for being absent. * We came into a village. The stonework, of Roman origin, supported an entire structure.,We arrived in a village. The church was open. The candelabras of the altar were remarkable only for being absent. We came into a village. The walls revealed a rich past. The stonework, of Roman origin, supported an entire structure.,非常规间指照应与局部突显 There was a bicycle in the yard. The spokes were bent. Paul bought a 19 th- century painting. The sky is very attractive. Paul bought a 19 th- century painting. The clouds are very attractive.,所谓局部突显是指物体或概念通过空间呈现、记忆提取或心理聚焦所产生的某一组成部分或局部特征突显化的状态和过程。局部突显分为客观突显（包括空间突显和功能突显）和主观突显。客观突显是指处于某一空间位置的物体的某一显性部位的突显，或其某一显性特征和功能的突显。主观突显是一种心理现象，是对物体的某一部位或其概念结构中某一单元或单元之间关系的心理突显，在此过程中，被突显的部位或单元通常从隐性状态转变为显性状态。,Paul bought a used car. The spark plugs need to be replaced. (引自Charolles,1999：317),主观凸显,认知关联 在释义过程中，听者可依据关联原则（principle of relevance）（Sperber and Wilson,1986）对前指词进行主观突显，并对前指词与先行词之间的关系进行重构，从而建立一种临时性的常规关系表征，如： Paul put his saxophone down. The reed was cracked.,心理模型 心理模型(mental models)这个概念最初是由认知语言学家Johnson-Laird及其同事于八十年代初提出的。从广义上说，它是认知系统对外在物体或事件的动态符号表征。它是一种虚设构体(hypothetical construct)，可以通过对相关成分及其关系的表征对某一系统的运作进行解释和预测（Rickheit and Habel,1999:10）。如： 24) The fork is on the left of the plate. 对于这个语句，我们可以用心理模型来进行理解。可以用F和P这两个符号分别表示 “fork”和 “plate”，从而对语句中的具体关系进行表征，即：FP。,Three turtles rested on a floating log and a fish swam beneath them. A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The waiter must have taken it up in the morning.,分析以下例子：,Johnny is a boy who is with his friend Billy. He calls home to ask if he can go swimming with Billy. His father answers the phone. It is ok with the father if Johnny goes along but he checks with his wife by saying: Johnnys father: “Billy wants to take Johnny swimming.“ Johnnys mother answers: “He has a cold“.,Li & Thompson的连接度限制条件,“连接度”（conjoinability） 连接度指的是发话者对语篇中小句之间联系(connection)程度的感知（perception），或者指的是一个小句与前一小句组合为一个语篇单位的难易程度。 小句中代词的优选度与该小句与前一小句之间的连接度成反比,a. 后来马五儿打从赵州桥路过, b. 看见了, c. 就把眼睛拾起来, d. 安在自己额上。,影响连接度的三个因素，即： 小句从背景信息转换到前景信息（foreground information），或从前景信息转换到背景信息； 第二个小句的句首标有一个副词短语或一个对比性词素（contrastive morpheme）； 小句是会话中的不同话轮（turns）,a 外边进来了一个人， b. 两个红眼睛， c. 一副大圆脸， d. 戴着一个小帽子， e. 他姓夏。,a. 这幅画后来送到北京去展览, b. 变得很有名, c. 还买了五十万, d. 很多年后, 这幅画又在上海出现了。,a. 这王冕天性聪明， b. 年纪不满二十岁， c. 就把那天文、地理、经史上的大学问无一不贯通， d. 但他性情不同。,经历了两个多小时的跋涉后，黄先银一阵吆喝，在泥泞淹没脚面的沼泽地上，他居然跑了起来。 （有多少天鹅，殇逝世在鄱阳湖， 新民晚报2009年2月12日A11）,Chen 的可预见性条件和可忽略性条件,可预见性条件(The predictability condition , PC)可通过以下三个参数进行评定： (1) 是否存在可作为候选指称对象的其它竞争性的名词( competing nouns)。 (2) 与前面小句之间的连接度（conjoinability）的高低。 (3) 可及性层级（accessibility hierarchy）的高低。,a. 老钱有这么个脾气， b. 问朋友要什么东西， c. 立刻就得给， d. 不给， e. 就觉得是瞧不起他， f. 几天不高兴。 (Chen, 1984:8),整体共指（global coreference）,局部共指（local coreference）和整体共指（global coreference） 局部共指是指，一个小句中处于主语/话题位置的当下(current)零形代词与其前面的(preceding)主语/话题NP共指，且不存在可能会对小句间连续性话题链起到干扰作用的其它匹配的NP。如下例：.,朱伏，1不敢稍息，2 俄闻鞋声至室内，复出。,而对于整体共指来说，当下小句中的零形代词与前一小句中的先行NP主语一般都存在着非连接性（nonconjoinability），要找出它们之间的共指关系（coreference）只能通过“直接指称心理模型中的个别概念标记（conceptual tokens ）,女笑拉公子。公子入室，1掸扑衣上尘，2拭眼泪，3摩挲杖痕，4饵以枣栗，公子乃收涕以欣。,抽象实体回指,a. 有人等得