英语语言学入门知识.ppt

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics,女人，妖的叫美女，刁的叫才女，木的叫淑女，蔫的叫温柔，凶的叫直爽，傻的叫阳光，狠的叫冷艳，土的叫端庄，洋的叫气质，怪的叫个性，匪的叫干练，嫩的叫青春靓丽，老的叫丰韵犹存，牛的叫傲雪凌风，弱的叫小鸟依人做女人真好啊。,1，留了青山在，柴不让烧了。2，已到山前，就是没有路。3，买卖没成交，仁义也跑了。4，屡经风雨，却从未见彩虹。5，千里送鹅毛，汽油费太高。6，一个好汉三个帮，结果成了四-人-帮。7，办事本来有路子的，但走的人多了，堵死了。,1.1Whystudylanguage?,问：你幸福吗？,答：我姓曾。,如：“你经历太单纯，而我们需要的是社会经验丰富的人”，“你性格过于内向，这恐怕与我们的职业不合适”，“我们需要名牌院校的毕业生，你并非毕业于名牌院校”，“你的专业怎么与所申请的职位不对口？”面对这种咄咄逼人的发问，作为应聘者，首先要做到的就是无论如何不要被“激怒”，如果你被“激怒”了，那么你就已经输掉了。那么，面对这样的发问，如何接招儿呢？,如果对方说：“你经历太单纯，而我们需要的是社会经验丰富的人。”,你可以微笑着回答：“我确信如我有缘加盟贵公司，我将会很快成为社会经验丰富的人，我希望自己有这样一段经历。”,如果对方说：“你性格过于内向，这恐怕与我们的职业不合适。”,你可以微笑着回答：“据说内向的人往往具有专心致志、锲而不舍的品质，另外我善于倾听，因为我感到应把发言机会多多地留给别人。”,如果对方说：“我们需要名牌院校的毕业生，你并非毕业于名牌院校。”,你可以幽默地说：“听说比尔。盖茨也未毕业于哈佛大学。”,如果对方说：“你的专业怎么与所申请的职位不对口？”,你可以巧妙地回答：“据说，21世纪最抢手的就是复合型人才，而外行的灵感也许会超过内行，因为他们没有思维定势，没有条条框框。”,1.2WhatisLanguage?,Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939),语言是人们通过随意创造的符号来交流思想、感情和愿望的一种方法，是人类所特有、但不是与生俱来的,是后天获得的。,语言不是本能的行为而是社会的习俗同时认为“语言只是声音符号的习惯系统”。后来又提到语言是一种“表达意义的工具”。所以说萨丕尔的语言定义全面地概括了前人所说的语言是一种交际工具和语言是一个符号系统这两种观点，并把它们有机地结合起来。,Alanguageisasystemformeanings.Halliday（韩礼德1925-）,功能语言学派认为语言是一个系统，应对其结构进行共时的研究，把语言的结构与功能结合起来研究。他们认为语言的基本功能是作交际工具，语言是一个由多种表达手段构成的、为特定目的服务的功能系统。因此要用功能的观点去研究语言。,Alanguageisaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928-）,从现在开始，我认为语言是一组（有限或无限）的句子，每个句子在长度上有限，并由一套有限的成分组成。,Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是一个具有任意性，用于人类交流的语音符号系统。,首先，语言是一个系统。即语言的要素是根据规则组合在一起的。Eg.“iblk”,“Beenhewoundedhas”,其次，语言符号和符号所代表的的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。,再次，语言是有声的，因为所有语言的首要媒介都是声音。Eg.文字系统VS.声音系统,WebstersNewWorldDictionaryoffersseveralmostfrequentlyusedsensesoftheword“language”,namely,1(a)humanspeech;(b)theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans;(c)asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;(d)thewrittenrepresentationofsuchasystem.,1.3DesignFeaturesofLanguage,1.狼是一种狡诈的动物，它使用多种脸面表情、尾部动作、嗥叫声表示不同程度的威吓、焦急、沮丧，屈从。,2.泰国北部的长臂猿至少有九种不同的喊叫。有一种高昂的呼号是警告同类注意有敌来犯，听到的同类也往往应声重复。有一种叫喊似乎是招呼大家在林中觅食时不要分散得太开。,3.工蜂发现蜜源，回巢向同伴做舞蹈动作。舞蹈的特征视所要传递的信息而异；有一种特征指明蜜源在蜂巢的什么方向，另一种特征指明距离多远，舞蹈的遍数多、活跃程度高，则表示花蜜的质量高。别的工蜂从舞蹈得到这些信息，就成群地飞过去采蜜。,DesignfeaturesConceptintroducedbyC.F.Hockettinthe1960sofasetofkeypropertiesoflanguagenotsharedornotknowntobeshared,asaset,withsystemsofcommunicationinanyotherspecies.Theirnumberandnamesvaryfromoneaccounttoanother;butallinclude,asamongthemostimportant,thepropertiesofduality,arbitrariness,andproductivity.,ThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalledDesignFeatures.,Vocal-AuditoryChannelBroadcasttransmissionanddirectionalreceptionRapidFading(transitoriness)InterchangeabilityTotalFeedbackSpecializationSemanticityArbitrarinessDiscretenessDisplacementProductivityTraditionalTransmissionDualityofpatterning,1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性,Thepropertyoflanguagebywhichthereisingeneralnonatural(i.e.logical)relationbetweentheformofasinglelexicalunitanditsmeaning.,语言是符号系统：语言符号连接的不是事物和名称，而是概念和音响形象。,能指和所指的联系是任意的，或者，我们所说的符号是能指和所指相联结所产生的整体。语言符号是任意的。,(1)Arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning,符号的形成包含好多的心智努力。,人们接触的都是一个个、一件件的事物，要能从中归出类来，必须动脑筋，舍去个体的特性（比如个体苹果的形状、大小、色泽、口感），抽出整类的共性（苹果区别于其他水果的特性），概括成类的意义（苹果的意义），然后把这个意义（即概念）跟一组音相结合，形成一个符号（“苹果”）。所以语言的符号指一般而不是个别，积累着社会的人事成果。,荀子在两千多年前就精辟地论述过语言符号的任意性问题：,名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成谓之实名。名无固善，径易而不拂，谓之善名。,荀子正名,Arbitraryvs.convention,Havingnonaturalexplanation.,AslearnersofEnglishweareoftentoldthat“thisisanidiom”meaningitisconventionaltosaythingsthiswayandyoucannotchangetheexpressionanyotherwayevenifyouthinkitdoesnotlookorsoundlogical.,Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.,1.3.2Duality二重性,Bydualityismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevel()arecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel()andeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.,words,sounds,Roughlyspeaking,theelementsofthespokenlanguagearesoundswhichdonotconveymeaninginthemselves.Theonlyfunctionofsoundsistocombinewithoneanothertoformunitsthathavemeaning,suchaswords.Wecallsoundsheresecondaryunitsasopposedtosuchprimaryunitsaswords,sincethesecondaryunitsaremeaninglessandtheprimaryunitshavedistinctandidentifiable.,syllables,thecarriersofmorphemes,words,sentences/utterances,duality,duality,duality,Thepropertyofbeingcomposedofdiscreteunitsattwolevels.Thus,atonelevel,thesentenceYougotosleepiscomposedofthewordsyou,go,toandsleep,and,atanotherlevel,itorthesuccessivewordsarecomposedofthephonologicalunitsj,u:,etc.,texts/discourse,meaninglesssounds,duality,duality,1.3.3Creativity创造性,Languageiscreativeinthesensethatitsuserscanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.,Bycreativitywemeanthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsduality.,IknowthatyouknowthatIknow.Etc.,1.3.4Displacement移位性,Bydisplacementismeantthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsthatarenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.,1.3.5Culturaltransmission文化传承性,尽管人的语言能力具有一种遗传的基础，即习得语言的能力是我们与生俱来的，但是任何语言系统的细节都得靠传授和学习，而不是靠遗传。一个说英语的人和一个说汉语的人都能使用某种语言，但是他们不能相互理解。这就表明语言是通过文化来传承的。它是通过教与学来传递，而不是本能地代代相传。与之相反的是，动物的叫声系统是通过遗传来传承的，即动物天生就具有它们物种特有的叫声的能力。,1.4OriginofLanguage,“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”,“AndtheLordsaid,Behold,thePeopleisone,andtheyhaveallonelanguage;andthistheybegintodo;andnownothingwillberestrainedfromthem,whichtheyhaveimaginedtodo.”,圣经解释：上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果,The“bow-bow”theory摹声说:Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalscallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.,The“pooh-pooh”theory感叹说:Inthehardliftofprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.,The“yo-he-ho”theory哼唷声说:Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.,SystemicFunctionalGrammar,1.5FunctionsofLanguage,Hallidayexplainsthispreoccupationinthefollowingway:“Itseemedtomethatexplanationsoflinguisticphenomenaneededtobesoughtinrelationshipsamongsystemsratherthanamongstructures”.,Hallidaysgrammarisnotjustsystemic,butsystemicfunctional.Hearguesthattheexplanationofhowlanguageworksneededtobegroundedinafunctionalanalysis,sincelanguagehadevolvedintheprocessofcarryingoutcertaincriticalfunctionsashumanbeingsinteractedwiththeir.eco-socialenvironment.,Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehasideational,interpersonalandtextualfunctions.,Theideationalcomponentisthatpartofthelinguisticsystemwhichisconcernedwiththeexpressionof“content”,withthefunctionthatlanguagehas“ofbeingaboutsomething.”,experiential:,logical:,moredirectlyconcernedwiththerepresentationofexperience,theabstractlogicalrelationswhichderiveonlyindirectlyfromexperience,Theinterpersonalcomponentisconcernedwiththesocial,expressiveandconative（意动的）functionsoflanguage,withexpressingthespeakers“angle”:hisattitudesandjudgments,hisencodingoftherolerelationshipsinsituation,andhismotiveinsayinganythingatall.,概念功能指人对外部世界的认知，或指在语言中反映出来的外部世界客观上可验证的事态。,Thetextualcomponentisforbeingoperationallyrelevant,coheringwithinitselfandwiththecontextofsituation.,篇章被视为一种语言单位，受衔接、连贯之类原则支配，这些特点可以从形式上定义起到鉴别作用的篇章性。,1.5.1InformativeFunction(信息功能),Itmeansthatlanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandlanguageservesaninformationalfunctionwhenusedtotellsomething.Itisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.Thedeclarativesentencessuchas“Thisisabook.”aretypicalillustrationofthisfunction.,1.5.2Interpersonalfunction(人际功能),Languageservestoestablish,developandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Forexample:thewaysinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves(suchasDearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant)indicatethevariousgradesofinterpersonalrelations.,Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrules,whichincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitselfforexampletherolesofquestionerandrespondent,whichwetakeonbyaskingoransweringaquestion.Throughthisfunction,socialgroupsaredelimited,andtheindividualisidentifiedandreinforced.,Languagecanbeusedtodothings,toperformaction.Itisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thelanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandritualized.Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsamemagicalorreligiousoccasions.,1.5.3Performative(行事功能),e.g.“Isurrender.”“Illdoittonight.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”“Isentenceyoutothreeyearsinprison.”,1.5.4Emotivefunction(感情功能),Theuseoflanguagetorevealthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.e.g.“Ouch!”,“Imterriblysorryabout”(alternativelycalledexpressivefunction),Itisthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialtoinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.,ItwasdefinedbytheanthropologistB.Malinowskiinthe1920sasatypeofspeechinwhichtiesofunionarecreatedbyamereexchangeofwords.Itmeansthesocialinteractionoflanguage.Theuseoflanguagetoestablishormaintainacomfortablesocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.E.g.greetings,farewells,andtalkingabouttheweather.,1.5.5Phaticcommunion(寒暄交谈),马林诺夫斯基(18841942)Malinowski，BronislawKaspar英国社会人类学家。功能学派创始人之一。生于波兰，卒于美国。1908年以全奥地利最优等成绩获得物理学和数学博士学位。马林诺夫斯基最大的贡献在於他提出了新的民族志写作方法。从马林诺夫斯基起，几乎所有的人类学家都必需到自己研究的文化部落住上一年半载，并实地参与聚落的生活，使用当地的语言甚至和土著建立友谊。而这些，都为了完成一份马林诺夫斯基式的民族志纪录。,我国德高望重的社会学家、人类学家、民族学家、社会活动家费孝通先生1936年底赴英国伦敦经济学院学习社会人类学，师从英国人类学家马林诺夫斯基。,1929年：ThesexuallifeofsavagesinNorth-westernMelanesia:anethnographicaccountofcourtship,marria1935年：珊瑚园及其魔力Coralgardensandtheirmagic.1944年：Freedomandcivilization1944年：文化论（AScientificTheoryofCulture）1945年：TheDynamicsofCultureChange1948年：巫术、科学与宗教（Magic,Science,andReligion）1967年：ADiaryIntheStrictSenseoftheTerm,1913年：澳大利亚土著家庭（TheFamilyamongtheAustraliaAborgines）1915年：TheTrobriandIslands1922年：西太平洋的航海者（ArgonautsoftheWesternPacific）1926年：原始社会的犯罪与习俗（Crimeandcustominsavagesociety）1927年：两性社会学:母系社会与父系社会底比较（Sexandreperssioninsavagesociety）,1.5.6Recreationalfunction(娱乐功能),Theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit.E.g.singing,poetrywriting.,AveryfamousmovieLiuSanJiefeaturesasceneof“duige”(songdueling)mostlyforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.,1.5.7Metalingualfunction（元语言功能）,Theuseoflanguagetomakestatementsaboutlanguageitself.Thelanguageaboutwhichtheyaremadeiscalledtheobjectlanguage.E.g.tosaythatbookispronouncedbukistomakeametalinguisticstatementaboutthatword.,Ametalanguageisalanguageofahigherorderthanitsobjectlanguage(对象语言).,1.5.8Linearorder,能指属听觉性质，只在时间上展开，而且具有借自时间的特征：,（a）它体现一个长度；,（b）这长度只能在一个时间向度上测定：它是一条线。,视觉的能指（比如航海信）可以在几个向度上同时并发，而听觉的能指却只有时间上的一条线；它的要素相继出现，构成一个链条。我们只要用文字把它们表示出来，用书写符号的空间线条代替时间上的前后相继，这个特征就马上可以看到。,(a)Thelionchasedtheunicornallroundthetown.,(b)Allroundthetownthelionchasedtheunicorn.,Thechangeinlinearorderchangesourperspectiveabouttheconcernsoftheclause:,(a)answerstheconcernabout“whatdidtheliondo”;while(b)isconcernedwith“whereorinwhatscopedidthelionchasetheunicorn”.,Thismakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive:wehumanbeingscantalkabouttalkandthinkaboutthink,andthusonlyhumanscanaskwhatitmeanstocommunicate,tothink,tobehuman.,1.6WhatisLinguistics?,Thescientificstudyoflanguage.Itnotonlyfocusonaparticularlanguage,butisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.,1.7MainBranchesofLinguistics,1.7.1Phonetics（语音学Chapter2）,PHONETICSstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.,1.7.2Phonology（音系学Chapter2）,PHONOLOGYstudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequenceofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Phonologyidentifiesthesetofspeechsoundsforeachlanguage,howtheyarearrangedtoformmeaningfulunits,andthefunctionofeachsound.Phonologyrevealswhatthepossiblecombinationsofsoundsinalanguageareandexplainswhycertainwordstaketheformtheydo.,1.7.3Morphology（形态学Chapter3）,MORPHOLOGYisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemeandword-formationprocesses.,1.7.5Semantics（语义学Chapter5）,SEMANTICSexamineshowmeaningisencoded(编码)inalanguage.,decode:（解码）,Usedsometimesoftheprocessofunderstandingasentence.,Usedofasupposedmentalprocessbywhichpre-existingthoughtsareencodedassentences.,1.7.4Syntax（句法学Chapter4）,SYNTAXisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences.Theformorstructuralofasentenceisgovernedbytherulesofsyntax.,1.8Macrolinguistics(宏观语言学),1.7.6Pragmatics（语用学Chapter8）,PRAGMATICSisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththewaylanguageisusedtocommunicateratherthanwiththewaylanguageisinternallystructured.,Psycholinguistics（心里语言学）Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）AnthropologicalLinguistics（人类语言学）ComputationalLinguistics（计算机语言学）,1.9ImportantDistinctioninLinguistics,1.9.1Descriptivevs.Prescriptive(描写vs.规定),Prescriptivestatementsaimto“prescribe”whatisjudgedtobecorrectratherthanto“describe”actualusage.,Itsme.Whodidyouspeakto?Ihaventdonenothing.,Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse;itisprescriptiveifitaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviourinusinglanguage,i.e.Totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwahttheyshouldnotsay.,1.9.2Synchronicvs.Diachronic(共时vs.历时),gast:,gasti,gesti,geste,gaste,gast:,gast:,gast:,甲时期,乙时期,丙时期,N时期,synchronicstudy,diachronicstudy,单复数的关系，不管它的形式怎样，在每个时期都可以用一条横轴线表示。,不管是什么实事，凡引起由一个形式过渡到另一个形式的，都可以置于一条纵轴线上面。,Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent)asitspointofobservation.E.g.AGrammarofAncientChinese,Diachronic/historicallinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.FromOldEnglishtoStandardEnglish,共时态的实事总是有意义的，它总是要求助于两项同时的要素；表达复数的不是gaste,而gast:gaste的对立。,在历时实事中，情况恰好相反：它只涉及一项要素；一个新的形式（gaste）出现，旧的形式（gasti）必须给它让位。,历时语言学（历史语言学/动态语言学）研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵的方面研究语言的历史的语言学。,共时语言学（静态语言学）以语言在历史发展过程中某一特定状态中的语言系统系统为研究对象，揭示语言的内部结构规律，分析各种语言单位，描写语言规则而不考虑时间的因素。,1.9.3LangueandParole(语言和言语),AdistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure(费尔迪南德索绪尔1857-1913).Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualizedlanguage,orrealizationoflangue.,Asasocialproduct,langueisasetofconventionthatmembersofaspeechcommunityabideby.Itcanbethoughtofasthegeneralizedrulesofthelanguage.Paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsorapplicationsoftherules.,“Ifwecouldembracethesumofword-imagesstoredinthemindsofallindividuals,wecouldidentifythesocialbondthatconstituteslanguage(langue).Itisastorehousefilledbythemembersofagivencommunitythroughtheiractiveuseofspeaking(parole),agrammaticalsystemthathasapotentialexistenceineachbrain,or,morespecially,inthebrainsofagroupofindividuals.,Forlanguage(langue)isnotcompleteinanyspeaker;itexitsperfectlyonlywithacollectivity.Inseparatinglanguage(langue)fromspeaking(parole)weareatthesametimeseparating(1)whatissocialfromwhatisindividual;and(2)whatisessentialfromwhatisaccessoryandmoreorlessaccidental.”(Saussure,1959:13-14),Whileparoleconstitutestheimmediatelyaccessibledata,thelinguistsproperobjectisthelanguageofeachcommunity,thelexicon,grammar,andphonologyimplantedineachindividualbyhisupbringinginsocietyandonthebasisofwhichhespeaksandunderstandshislanguage.,索绪尔之所以做出这样的区分，是为了突出语言的一方面做严肃的研究。在他看来，言语仅仅只是一堆语言事实，太杂乱无章，太容易引起迷惑，因而无法进行系统的研究。语言学家需要做的就是从言语中抽象出语言，即找出语言实际用语中起支配作用的规律性，然后将其作为语言学研究的课题。,索绪尔，瑞士著名语言学家。1916年，索绪尔去世以后，它的学生将他的讲义（Acourseofgenerallinguistics）整理才出版。书中阐发的他的语言学思想，对于现代语言学的发展具有深远的意义。,提出了语言是一个符号系统的主张；,区分了语言、言语和言语活动；,论述了语言系统性与符号的价值；,区分了历史语言学与共时语言学；,提出了组合关系和聚合关系的概念；,提出了建立符号学（semiotics）的思想。,Langueisabstract;paroleisspecifictothesituationinwhichitoccurs;,Langueisnotactuallyspokenbyanyone;paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;,Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic;paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints.,如果我们能够全部掌握储存在每个人脑子里的词语形象，也许会接触到构成语言的社会纽带。这是通过语言实践存放在某一社会集团全体成员的宝库，一个潜存在每一个的脑子里，或者说得更确切些，潜存在一群人的脑子里的语法体系；因为在任何人的脑子里，语言都不是完备的，它只有在集体中才能完全存在。,1.9.4CompetenceandPerformance(语言能力和语言运用),Competenceisthespeaker-listenersknowledgeofhislanguageandperformanceistheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.,Competenceenablesalanguageusertoproduceandunderstandsentences,includingsentencesthathehasneverheardbefore,andtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities,Theshootingofthehunteristerrible.Thechickenistoohottoeat.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.,诺姆乔姆斯基NoamChomsky(1928-)UStheoreticallinguistandpoliticalactivist.HistheoryoftransformationalgrammarwassetoutinSyntacticStructures(1957).,转换生成语法（Transformationalgenerativegrammar,简称TG），简单地说，转换生成语法理论研究的是人类为什么会说话以及如何了解新的句子。,早期的生成语法学家以数学的集