Cultural_values跨文化交际文化价值观模式ppt课件.ppt

ChapterThreeCulturalValues/Patterns/Orientations,1,Contents,2,1.Perception,BeliefandValues,1.1Perception,1.2Beliefs,1.3Values,2.CulturalPatterns,3,1.1Whatisperception?,Perceptionisprimaryinthestudyofinterculturalcommunication,becauseourinformationaboutandknowledgeofourphysicalandsocialworldaremediated(传达)byperceptualprocesses.Ourperceptionsgivemeaningtoallthoseexternalforces:symbols,things,people,ideas,events,ideologiesandfaith.“Perceptionistheprocessofselecting,organizing,andinterpretingsensorydatainawaythatenablesustomakesenseofourworld.”(GambleandGamble)(P56),4,Twowaysthatcultureinfluencestheperceptionprocess:1.Perceptionisselective.Whatisallowedinis,inpart,determinedbyculture.2.Yourperceptualpatternsarelearned.“perceptionisculturallydetermined.Welearntoseetheworldinacertainwaybasedonourculturalbackground.”seeP57-58,1.1.Perception3.fromonespeers(friends,schoolmates,playmates;4.fromsocietyatlarge,12,Wheretofind1.frompeoplesbehaviorpattern2.fromwhatpeoplesayaboutthemselves;3.frommyths,talesofheroesandrituals;4.fromfolktales,movies,proverbs,sayings,etc.,13,Individualism,Equality,Materialism,Scienceandtechnology,Progressandchange,Workandleisure,Competition,USDominantculturalpatterns(P62-65),14,2.CulturalPatterns,2.1Definitions,2.2Kluckhohn,KluckhohnandStrodtbeckValueOrientation,2.3HofstedesValuesDimension,3.ICStrategies,2.4HallsContextOrientation,15,2.1CulturalPatterns,Perceptionsarestoredwithineachhumanbeingintheformofbeliefs+values=culturalpatterns.Culturalpatterntaxonomiesareusedtoillustratethedominantbeliefsandvaluesofaculture.,16,2.Howtoclassifydifferentculturepatterns?,VariationsofValueStudies,KluckhohnandStrodtbecksValueOrientation,HofstedesDimensionsofCulturalVariability,EdwardTHallsContext-CultureTheory,HumanNature,Man-nature,Time,Activity,SocialRelationship,IndividualismVsCollectivism,UncertaintyAvoidance,PowerDistance,MasculinityVsFemininity,High-Context,Low-Context,17,2.2ModelbyKluckhohn(P74-79).,5basicquestionsthatneedansweringattherootofanyculture:1)Whatisthecharacterofhumannature?2)Whatistherelationofmantonature?3)Whatistheorientationtowardtime?(temporalfocus)4)Whatisthemodeofhumanactivity?5)Whatisthemodeofhumanrelationship?,1)=Humannatureorientation人性取向2)=Man-natureorientation人与自然的关系取向3)=Timeorientation时间取向4)=Activityorientation行为取向5)=Socialorientation人际取向,18,2.2KluckhohnandStrodtbecksfivevalueorientations(P74),19,2.2.1.HumanNature,1).Humannatureisevilbutperfectible.WiththeinfluenceofChristianity,Westernersbelievethathumannatureisbasicallyevilduetotheiroriginalsin.However,theevilnaturecanbesavedthroughsalvation,ifonebelievesinJesusChristandcontinuesdoinggoodthings.,20,2).Humannatureisamixtureofgoodandevil.Asaresultoftheriseofhumanisminthewest,theabovebasicbeliefhaschangedtooneseeinghumansasamixtureofgoodandevil.Inotherwords,everyonehasthegoodsideandbadside.Therefore,thereislawsysteminhumansocietytorewardthegoodinpeopleandpunishthebadandmakesurethatmenarenotdoinganythingevil.,21,3).Humannatureisgoodbutcorruptible.Good:thephilosophiesofConfucianismandBuddhism.InChina,asinotherAsiansocietiesthathaveacceptedtheteachingofConfucius,peoplearebelievedtobebasicallygood.Childrenarebelievedtobepureandinnocentbutmaybecomecorruptedastheygrowolderandhavemorecontactwithsociety.Theywillbebadiftheydonthavegoodeducationwhentheyareveryyoung”.(人之初，性本善。性相近，习相远。苟不教，性乃迁)Buddhismmaintainsthatyouarebornpureandareclosesttowhatiscalled“lovingkindness”whenyouenterthisworld.Hence,peoplearegood,buttheircultureoftenmakesthemevil.,22,2.2.2.man-natureorientation,23,1).Subjugation(屈服)tonature.Themostpowerfulforcesoflifearebeyondtheircontrol.Whethertheforcebeagod,fate,ormagic,apersoncannotovercomeitandmustthereforelearntoacceptit.ThisorientationisfoundinIndiaandpartsofSouthAmerica.FortheHindu,becauseeverythingispartofaunifiedforce.This“oneness”withtheworldhelpscreateavisionofaworldoperatinginharmony.Eg.someHindusectssuchastheBishoisdonotallowthecuttingdownofanytreesortheslaughterofanimals.ThisisextremereverenceforNature,whichhasprecedenceoverhumanactivities.InMexicoandamongMexicanAmericans,thereisastrongtietoCatholicismandtheroleoffateincontrollinglifeandnature.,24,2).HarmonywithnatureTheharmonyviewiswidespreadandisassociatedwithEastAsians.Chinesepeoplebelievethebalanceandharmonybetweenmanandnaturalworld.ThisbeliefpermeatesineveryaspectofChineseculture.Chinesemedicine,forexample,ismainlytoadjusttheunbalancedhumanbody.InJapanandThailand,thereisaperceptionthatnatureispartoflifeandnotahostileforcewaitingtobesubdued.Thisorientationaffirmsthatpeopleshould,ineverywaypossible,liveinharmonywithnature.ThedesiretobepartofnatureandnotcontrolithasalwaysbeenstrongamongAmericanIndians.,25,3).MasteryovernatureWesternpeoplebelievetheyarethemastersofnature.ThisvalueorientationischaracteristicoftheWesternapproach,whichhasalongtraditionofvaluingtechnology,change,andscience.Peoplewiththisorientationseeaclearseparationbetweenhumansandnature.Americanshavehistoricallybelievedthatnaturewassomethingthatcouldandhadtobemastered.EarlyWestEuropeanimmigrantstoNorthAmericaencounteredavast,unforgivingwildernessthattheysetaboutto“tame,”andmodernastronautsareworkingto“conquer”space.,26,2.2.3.TimeorientationPastPresentFuture,27,1)PASTORIENTATION,Past-orientedcultures:thepastshouldbetheguideformakingdecisionsanddeterminingtruth.believestronglyinthesignificanceofpriorevents.History,establishedreligions,andtraditionareextremelyimportanttotheseculturesTheFrenchlivesurroundedbythousandsofmonumentstotheirgloriouspast.EveryquarterinParishasitshistoricallyimportantstatues,buildings,orfountains,dailyremindersofpastachievements.Frenchvillageshavestatuestolocalheroesandimportantpoliticalleaders.Asaresultofthisconstantimmersioninhistory,theFrenchtendtoseethingsintheirhistoricalcontextandrelatecontemporaryeventstotheirorigins.,28,1)PASTORIENTATION,China,-becauseofitslongandresplendenthistorycontinuestorespectthepast.Respectfortheirhistoricalheritageisconsideredthemostimportanttraditionalvalue.Thewordoldusuallysymbolizesexperienceandauthority.(“百年老店”,“老字号”)InJapan,whereShintoismisstrongandreverencetowardancestorsisimportant,thepaststillremainsparamount.GreatBritain,becauseofitsdevotiontotradition,includingthecontinuationofamonarchy,resistschangeasitcontinuestovalueitshistoricalachievements.TheFrench,onmanylevels,veneratethepastIntheUnitedStates,AmericanIndiansvaluethepast.,29,2)PRESENTORIENTATION,Present-orientedculturesholdthattheimmediatemomenthasthemostsignificance,becausetheyseethefutureasvague,ambiguous,andunknown.Forthesecultures,whatisrealexistsinthehereandnow,andthepresentshouldbeenjoyed.PeopleofthePhilippinesandmostLatinAmericancountriesusuallyholdthesebeliefs.MexicanAmericansalso“prefertoexperiencelifeandpeoplearoundthemfullyinthepresent.”alsocharacteristicoftheAfrican-Americanco-culture.,30,3)FUTUREORIENTATION,Future-orientedculturesemphasizewhatistocomeandexpectthefuturetobegranderandnicerthanthepresent.Thewordoldisassociatedwith“fallingbehindanduselessness,whilenewisrelatedtoprogress,changeandchallenge.Peopleevenbelievetheycancontrolthefuture.Futureorientationprevailsinthewesternculture.SuchastheU.S.dominantculture,“Ifatfirstyoudontsucceed,try,tryagain.”“Yesterdayisnotourstorecover,buttomorrowisourstowinortolose.”,31,2.2.4.ActivityorientationBeing（存在）:anondevelopmentalmodelBeing-in-becoming（成为）:aspiritualgoalofinnerharmonyandpeace.Doing（做）:activitythatleadstoexternalaccomplishments,32,1)BEINGORIENTATION,Peopleinbeing-orientatedculturesacceptpeople,events,andideasasflowingspontaneously.Theystressrelease,indulgenceofexistingdesires,andworkingforthemoment.”MostLatinocultureshavetheviewthatthecurrentactivityistheonethatmattersthemost.InMexico,forexample,peopletakegreatdelightinthesimpleactofconversationwithfamilyandfriends.Mexicanswilltalkforhourswiththeircompanions,fortheybelievethattheactof“being”isoneofthemaingoalsandjoysoflife,33,2)BEING-IN-BECOMINGORIENTATION,Thebeing-in-becomingorientationstressestheideaofdevelopmentandgrowth.Itemphasizesthekindofactivitythatcontributestothedevelopmentofallaspectsoftheselfasanintegralwhole.Thisusuallycorrelateswithculturesthatvalueaspirituallifemorethanamaterialone.Forexample,inbothHinduismandBuddhism,peoplespendaportionoftheirlivesinmeditationandcontemplationinanattempttopurifyandfullyadvancethemselves.ManyoftheNewAgereligiousmovementsintheUnitedStatesalsostresstheneedtodevelopthebeing-in-becomingapproachtodailylife.,34,3)DOINGORIENTATION,Thekeytothisorientationisavaluesystemthatstressesactivityandaction.ThedominantAmericanculture:Americansareactionoriented;theyarego-getters.Theygetgoing,getthingsdone,andgetahead.InAmerica,peoplegatherforactiontoplaybasketball,todance,togotoaconcert,andtotakerisks.Whengroupsgathertheyplaygamesorwatchvideos.ManyAmericansdonthavethepatiencetositdownandtalk.Lifeisinconstantmotion.,35,2.2.5.SocialOrientation,36,2.2.5.SocialOrientation,Socialrelationships1）hierarchy:Thismeanseachpersonhasapositioninahierarchy.Peoplehaveclearlydefinedprivilegesandobligationsaccordingtotheirpositioninrelationtoothers.Chinaisbasicallyahierarchicalsociety.,37,2).GroupIncultureswithgroupvalues,peoplemakedecisionsbyconsensus.Eachpersonssocialidentitycomesfromhisorhergroups.Loyaltyisimportantincultureswithgroupvalues.,38,3).IndividualIncultureswithindividualisticvalues,eachpersonisseenasautonomousandseparate.Everyoneisequal.Selfismoreimportantthangroup.,39,40,2.3HofstedesfiveValuedimensions,Hofstedesworkwasoneoftheearliestattemptstouseextensivestatisticaldatatoexamineculturalvalues.Duringthe1980s,hesurveyedoverahundredthousandworkersinmultinationalorganizationsinfortycountries.Thefindingsweretheresultofaresearchconductedinalargeenterprise,IBM,withitsbranchesin67countries.5dimensions:powerdistanceuncertaintyavoidanceindividualism/collectivismmasculinity/femininitylaterdiscusseda5thdimension-longtermview(Asia),41,2.3.1.Individualismvs.Collectivism,Individualisticcultures“I”consciousnessindependence,competition,individualachievementCollectivistcultures“We”consciousness,interdependence,groupharmony,groupcooperation,42,Individualorientedsociety：alooselyknitsocialframework;individualsaresupposedtotakecareofthemselves.Theuniquenessofeachindividualisofparamountvalue.(ICulture)Examples:America,NorthEuropeancountriesGrouporientedsociety：atightlyknitsocialframework;peoplecanexpecttheirin-groups(relatives,clans,tribesororganizations)tolookafterthem.(WeCulture或I-lessCulture)Examples:AsiancountriesandLatinAmericancountriesandMiddleEasterncountries,1Individualismvs.Collectivism,43,2.3.1Individualismvs.Collectivism,individualism,collectivism,44,2.3.1Individualismvs.Collectivism,Wecanfindmanyexamplesinourdailylife,whichstressgroupbehaviorssuchas“我们都(Weall“深受大众喜爱”(bewellpopular),”:老少皆宜“(goodforallages),“大家好，才是真好”(theproductisgoodforall,soitisindeedgood),“全国用户满意”(thecustomersalloverthecountryaresatisfied.).,45,2.3.1.Individualismvs.Collectivism,Thefollowingadvertisementsshowthisorientationclearly.l)Findyourownroad.2)Inthisageoftechnology-sharing,whateverhappenedtoindividuality?,46,47,2.3.1individualism/collectivismcontinuum:,AccordingtoHofstedesfindings(seeTable5.1),theUnitedStates,Australia,GreatBritain,Canada,theNetherlands,andNewZealandalltendtowardindividualism.Goleman2.Incollectivesocieties,suchasthoseinPakistan,Colombia,Venezuela,Taiwan,Peru,andmuchofAfricaandAsia,peoplearebornintoextendedfamiliesorclansthatsupportandprotecttheminexchangefortheirallegiance.InmanyArabicnations,tribalismpredominates,lieinthemiddleofthecontinuum.AfricanAmericansalsoexhibitcollectivism.,48,2.3.1Individualismvs.Collectivism,Casestudy,Atthenegotiatingtable,differencesinthisdimensioncanclearlycauseseriousconflict.AmericanstoooftenexpecttheirJapanesecounterpartstomakedecisionsrightatthenegotiatingtable,andtheJapaneseareconstantlysurprisedtofindindividualmembersoftheAmericanteampromotingtheirownpositions,decisions,andideas,sometimesopenlycontradictingoneanother.,AmericaindividualismJapancollectivism,49,2.3.2.UncertaintyAvoidance,uncertaintyavoidance:.definestheextenttowhichpeoplewithinaculturearemadenervousbysituationswhichtheyperceiveasunstructured,unclear,orunpredictable,situationswhichtheythereforetrytoavoidbymaintainingstrictcodesofbehaviorandabeliefinabsolutetruths.”-Hofstede,50,2.3.2.UncertaintyAvoidance,High-uncertaintyavoidanceculturestrytoavoiduncertaintyandambiguitybyprovidingstabilityfortheirmembersthroughestablished,formalsocialprotocols,intoleranceofdeviantideasandbehaviors,emphasizingconsensus,andresistancetochange.Theseculturesareoftencharacterizedbyrelativelyhighlevelsofanxietyandstress.Hofstedesummarizestheviewofpeopleinhighuncertaintyavoidanceculturesas“whatisdifferent,isdangerous,”andthebeliefofpeopleinlowuncertaintyavoidanceculturesas“whatisdifferent,iscurious”.,51,2.3.2UncertaintyAvoidance,HighUncertaintyAvoidance：uncomfortablewithuncertaintyandambiguity,intolerantwithdeviance.ForExample:Greece,Belgium,Portugal,Japan,Chile,Israel,SpainLowUncertaintyAvoidance：practicecountsmorethanprinciples;devianceismoreeasilytolerated.Forexample:Singapore,Sweden,Denmark,Malaysia,52,RankingofUncertaintyAvoidance,*Alowscoremeansthecountrycanbeclassifiedasonethatdoesnotlikeuncertainty.,Thelowerscore,thehigheruncertaintyavoidance.,53,54,2.3.2.UncertaintyAvoidance,NationswithastronguncertaintyavoidancetendencyareGreece,Portugal,Peru,Belgium,andJapan.theotherendofthecontinuum,wefindcountrieslikeSweden,Denmark,Ireland,Norway,theUnitedStates,Finland,andtheNetherlands,55,2.3.3.PowerDistance,Powerdistanceis“theextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersofinstitutionsandorganizationsacceptthatpowerisdistributedunequally”.Howdoyouinterprettherelationshipbetweenthefollowingpairsinbothhighandlowpowerdistanceculture?parents-childrenteacher-studentboss-employee,56,2.3.3.PowerDistance,HighPDCulture:PeoplewhoholdpowerandpeoplewhoareaffectedbypoweraresignificantlyfarapartVertical,hierarchical(everybodyhasarightfulplace)E.g.India,Brazil,Singapore,Greece,Mexico,etc.LowPDCulture:ThepowerholdersandpeopleaffectedbythepowerholdersaresignificantlycloserHorizontal(inequalityinsocietyshouldbeminimized)E.g.Austria,Finland,Denmark,Norway,NewZealand,etc.,57,2.3.3Powerdistance,Peopleinhigh-powerdistancecountriesbelievethatpowerandauthorityarefactsoflife.Socialhierarchyisprevalentandinstitutionalizesinequality.youfindagreatercentralizationofpower,moreimportanceplacedonstatusandrank,alargerproportionofsupervisorypersonnel,astructuredvaluesystemthatdeterminestheworthofeachjob,andsubordinatesadheringtoarigidhierarchy.,58,2.3.3Powerdistance,Low-powerdistancecountriesholdthatinequalityinsocietyshouldbeminimizedBrislinnotes,“Culturesreferredtoaslow-powerdistanceareguidedbylaws,norms,andeverydaybehaviorsthatmakepowerdistinctionsasminimalaspossible.”Peopleintheseculturesseehierarchyasaninequalityofrolesestablishedforconvenience.,59,60,61,2.3.4Masculinityvs.Femininity,Cultureshighinthemasculinitydimensionfocusonachievement,assertiveness,heroism,andmaterialsuccess,regardingworkasmorecentraltooneslife.(performancesociety)Cultureshighinthefemininitydimensionvalueinterpersonalrelationships,nurturance,modesty,compassion,caringfortheweakandqualityoflife.(welfaresociety),62,63,64,Japan,Austria,Venezuela,Italy,Switzerland,Mexico,Ireland,thePhilippines,GreeceareamongthecountrieswhereyoucanfindmanyofthemasculinevaluesdescribedbyHofstede(seeTable5.4).NationssuchasSweden,Norway,theNetherlands,Finland,Denmarktendtowardafeminineworldview.,2.3.4.Masculinityvs.femininity,65,2.3.5.Long-termversusshort-termorientation,Long-termorientationisthe5thdimentionofHofstedewhichwasaddedtotheoriginalfourtotrytodistinguishthedifferencesinthinkingbetweentheEastandWest.FromtheoriginalIBMstudies,thisdifferencewassomethingthatcouldnotbededuced(演绎).Therefore,HofstedecreatedaChinesevaluesurveywhichwasdistributedacross23countries.Fromtheresults,andwithanunderstandingoftheinfluenceoftheteachingsofConfuciusontheeasternAsiancountries,long-termvs.short-termorientationbecamethefifthculturaldimension.Characteristicsareasfollows:,66,1.Long-termorientation长期导向emphasizes:1)Persistence2)Orderingrelationshipsbystatusandobservingthisorder3)Thrift4)Havingasenseofshame5)Valuingfuture,67,2.Short-termorientation短期导向emphasizesPersonalsteadinessandstabilityProtectingyour“face”RespectfortraditionValuingpastandpresentFulfillingsocialobligations,68,Long-termorientation(suchasChina,HongKong,Taiwan,Japan,andSouthKorea)wouldmostlikelyhaveemployeeswhoreflectastrongworkethicandshowgreatrespectforstatusdifferences.Youcouldexpectindividualswhoaremembersoftheseculturestovaluesocialorderandlongrangegoals.Thoseculturesthatranklowonthelong-termorientationindex(theUnitedStates,GreatBritain,Canada,thePhilippines),accordingtoHofstede,oftendonotplaceahighpriorityonstatus,trytopostponeoldage,areconcernedwithshorttermresults,andseekquickgratificationoftheirneeds.,2.3.5.Long-versusshort-termorientation,69,Jokeappreciationforculturaldiversity,Ayoungladysminiskirtwasaccidentallytornopenbyayoungman.Pleasedecidewheretheycomefromaccordingtotheirresponsestothisincident.,70,Jokeappreciationforculturaldiversity,1.Beforethemansayingsorry,thewomanboweddownandsaidinatendervoice:sorry,itisallmyfault.Itisallthebadqualityofmyskirt.IamsorryforthetroubleIhavebroughttoyou.,Japan,Over-courtesyandmale-dominated,71,Jokeappreciationforculturaldiversity,2.Beforethemansayingsorry,thewomangavehimaname-cardandsaid:“Thisismylawyersphonenumber.Hewilltalkwithyouaboutyoursexharassment.Seeyouinthecourt.”,America,Aplacewherelawtalks!,72,Jokeappreciationforculturaldiversity,3.Beforethemansayingsorry,thewomancoveredthetornpartoftheskirtwithanewspaperinhandandshylysaid:“Sir,canyousendmehome?Itisnotveryfarfromhere.”Thentheyoungmanputhiscoatonthegirlandcalledataxitosendherhome.,England,Gentleandconservative,73,Jokeappreciationforculturaldiversity,4.Beforethemansayingsorry,thewomangurgledandputherhandonthemansshoulder:“Sir,ifyoudonotmind,youcanbuymearedrosetoshowyourapology.”Thenthemanboughtheraroseandtheywenttoahoteltogethertostudymoreabouttheskirt.,France,Friendlyandr