（英语语言文学专业论文）会话协调——交际的过程是互动的动态协调过程.pdf

iii 摘 要 文章讨论的是日常的会话交际文章认为, 会话交际的过程 是一个互动的动态协调过程首先通过定义协调在本文中 的含义比较协调同交际的关系指出协调同交际都有互动和动 态的特点其次文章从语言学语用学和文化三个方面论述了 在会话交际中协调的必要性第一语言所具有的任意性创造 性和二元性等性质导致了其在表达中模糊的特点 这是会话协调 的客观条件第二根据已有的语用学理论为了消除会话交际 中的模糊意义会采取不同的交际策略交际策略其实就是会话 协调的方法第三从文化角度看文化所具有多样性的特点 而语言既是文化的载体又是交际的主要手段不同文化的相互 适应可以通过会话协调来加以实现 关键词会话协调交际语言语用文化互动动态 ii abstract the dissertation tries to argue that the process of the conversational communication is the process of the interactive and dynamic negotiation in our daily communication. chiefly, it defines the meaning of “negotiation” in this article and points out its interactive and dynamic features by comparing similarities and differences with communication. then, the article discusses the standpoint from three aspects: linguistics, pragmatics and culture. first, arbitrariness, productivity and duality cause the ambiguous feature in language. this is the basic condition to negotiate in communication. next, according to pragmatic theories, different communication strategies are adopted to avoid the ambiguity. actually, communication strategies are the means of negotiation. last, culture has the feature of variety. language is the vehicle of culture as well as the main tool of communication. the acculturation of different cultures can be realized by the conversational negotiation. key words: conversational negotiation, communication, linguistics, pragmatics, cultureinteractive, dynamic 1 introduction the goal of any linguistic research is to discover the generalization of the language use. on the other hand, the generalization can guide us how to use the language. in my view, the general framework for conversation is as a game of negotiation. each communicator may have his/her intention before the conversation, but it is changeable as the developing of the conversation. being the main medium of communication, language should be the bridge of communication and should not be the barrier. so the better it is to understand the process of communication, the better it is to use language in ones daily life. this is the reason to choose this topic. as we learned that the negotiating should be considered as the process of constructing the bridge, it would be possible to know that the differences in the language, culture, the ideology, and the means of speaking should not be the barriers of communication. they should become faded as developing the negotiation in communication. we communicate because we have social needs, communication helps us keep in contact with others, know them and be known by them. the faster and the more sophisticated the development of the society, the more communication is needed. in the past research on the conversation, some maintain that conversation is such a complex process that any attempt to formalize conversational descriptions in discrete categorial terms is not only futile but also misguided. however, it is impossible for us to survive at this changing and improving globalization times, if we have not a clear understanding of the process of the conversation in communication. the importance of exploring the process of communication is that we can have a better understanding of others and a better use of the strategies in our daily communication. by realizing the fact that the process of communication is the process of the negotiation, we will try to improve the communicative effect so as to make our interpersonal relationships better in daily life. the author of this thesis is interested in the natural face-to-face conversation. the conversations here i am going to discuss 2 and research shall focus on the daily natural conversations, not the professional conversations in a specific field. as for the structure of this thesis, it is mainly composed of six parts, i.e. introduction; chapter one: negotiation in communication; chapter two: linguistic negotiation; chapter three: pragmatic negotiation; chapter four: cultural negotiation; conclusion. 3 chapter one negotiation in communication 1.negotiation 1.1. the definition of the negotiation in this article the word “negotiation” sometimes appears in some conversation analysis literature. it is very hard to collect the times of its appearances in the conversation literatures. anyway, it is obvious that most writers do not use it as a special term. “negotiation” does not appear in the two linguistic dictionaries edited by hartmann 22) from the south part of china, b: older (age; nearly 30) from the north part of china. a came back from the outside while b was reading a book at the desk. a: are you making the water heating? i need to have a wash. more kettles. b: en. (raise his head then, keep reading) (about ten minutes later.) a: the water is heated? b: en. (keep reading as if not to have heard as speech) a: the water is being heated yet? b: en. a: is it possible to heat the water continuously? b: of course! as we know generally that one should speak to the person in a polite way if one asks him or her to do something, especially the listener is older than the speaker. in this conversation, the way of as speaking seems impolite, so b chooses the indirect answer for a impolitely. when a notices bs attitude and speaks in a polite way, b also begins to speak more words in a better attitude. conversation is a process of negotiation. the communicators choose different kinds of strategies to realize the negotiation, to understand others utterance and to react to it. to make the conversation go smoothly and finish it effectively, each of the communicators adjusts himself /herself to the participation and tries to adjust the other to the participation. 9 2. communication 2.1. the definition of conversational communication according to the explanation given by richards et al. (2000: 80), the communication is a kind of social activity that needs more than two people to cooperate together. it is the exchange of ideas, information, etc. between two or more persons. in an act of communication there is usually at least one speaker or sender, a message that is transmitted, and a person or persons for whom this message is intended (the receiver). the forms of the communication are diverse, including interpersonal communication, mass communication, cross-cultural communication, etc. they all are used for the exchange of messages. the conversational communication belongs to the interpersonal communication. it is filled with messages, too. the function of messages could be: to warn, to advise, to inform, to persuade, to express opinions or to amuse, etc. messages are always transferred in a particular situation and particular way. senders may say something with the best of intentions. and they may not express what they mean. receivers may not understand what senders mean. we call those kinds of phenomena overt or covert. many kinds of tools and methods can be used in the communication. there are verbal communication and non-verbal communication. language is one of those. and the verbal communication is the most important communication method. under the grammatical rules, words construct sentences. as the sentence is spoken and used to express ones idea, we call it the utterances. if the utterances just produce a series of sentences, those kinds of utterances cannot be called the communication even though they are well-constructed sentences. we can call it the communicative behaviors when the utterances cause some reflections. if you want to join a language communication and to talk with others, the sentence knowledge is necessary but not enough. human beings do not reflect instinctively to any sound we hear. in our daily life, we receive too many messages to reflect to each of them. we need to infer or at least to infer what kind of activity it is and what we should do in it. as for a conversation, we should know it is just a chat or 10 a formal talk that is going to settle any problem. the conversation may play effectively as it is hoped. the goal of the communication is not only to exchange words with people who speak that language but also actually to understand what they mean. the choice of words is constrained by the context in which we use the language. constructing a speech event means not only having a choice of grammatical and lexical features, but also deciding which to choose from, depending on ones assessment of the whole situation of communication and on the expectations raised by the speaker and the listener in that situation. linguistically speaking, the conversational communication is an act in which meanings are exchanged through signs. the act involves essentially two participants, i.e. sender and receiver and two processes, i.e. encoding and decoding. 2.2. the factors in the communication conversation is a co-operative achievement of at least two participants. a speech event can be analyzed into a number of components: addresser, addressee, message, channel, setting, topic and code. (dai weidong, et al., 1986: 124) addresser and addressee refer to the participants of the conversation. the participants can be called: the speaker and the hearer, the sender and receiver, the addresser and the addressee. all those pairs of words refer to the expression for the participants of the communication. message refers to the content that each participant informs. channel refers to the means and behaviors used in communication, in this article, that is the face-to-face communication. in our daily communication, the meaning of the participants can be influenced by the factors like prosodic features and paralinguistic features, such as the intonation, sentence stress, rhythm, pitch, tone, face expressing, and gesture. all of those can be used to help express the meaning. setting refers to the context of the conversation. topic refers to what is talked about or the intention of the communication. as one communicates with the other, there is no way in which one speaker can put an absolute constraint on what the next 11 speaker will say. this does not mean, however, that one utterance can be followed by any other utterance in conversation. (amy, 2000: 19) code refers to the tool of the communication such as an exact language used. it must be pointed out that in face-to-face communication, the follow-up move is often realized by nonverbal means such as a nod, a smile, an eyebrow raising, silence and so on. for example: j wants to pay s for the stamps that s has given her. s: i think youd better just keep it because i dont have change anyway. j: well, next time im in the money as far as stamps are concerned. s: (laughs) s laugh is a contributing move in the exchange. it is a non-verbal acknowledgement of js accepting her suggestion to just take the stamps for free. non-verbal gestures such as the above are often not recorded in transcriptions, giving the illusion that the follow-up move is absent (amy, 2000: 37). sometimes silence is also significant and will be interpreted as meaningful in conversation. the meaning of communication may greatly relate with social relation and social status. in society, one is surrounded by various relations such as friends, husband and wife, compeer, etc. the different relations also influence the way people communicate with each other. the same meaning can be expressed in different words and intonations according to the different relations between the speaker and the hearer. understanding an utterance is not only a problem the interlocutor faces, so is communicating in the conversation. before understanding the utterance, the interlocutor must get the cooperation of the other and keep the participant of both in order to reach the correct understanding of the messages. 2.3. the features of the communication: interactive and dynamic if you observe carefully the conversation happening around you, it could be found that the functions and the interpretation of utterance are determined, to a large extent, by the dynamic structure of the text and the specific features of the interactive situations. 12 i may argue the natural daily conversation as an interactive and dynamic process. as we know that the conversation style changes continuously from one to another, from informal chat to serious discussion, then to humorous talk, from narration to the response, etc. in actual communication, first person intention and second person interpretation are brought to some satisfactory degree of convergence. meaning is jointly managed in spoken interaction by turn taking, the sharing of the floor, with different participants assuming the first person speaker role of adjusting the setting for the continuation of the interaction. (widdowson, 2000: 66) on the other hand, people dont just communicate with others, they communicate with themselves, they dont just listen to others, and they listen to themselves. communication is not a one-way broadcast of a signal, but it is an interactive process, involving not just the interaction between the interlocutors but also the interaction within each individual speaker. speech production is not a linear one-way process; it is a parallel, two-way system involving both output and the concurrent editing and modulation of that output. (scovel, 2000: 49) this interactive intelligence is an essential aspect of human intelligence. as such it is brought to bear upon any communicative interpretation. this process seems to work very successfully, in fact, when conversationalists share common histories, cultures, and life experiences. the inferences they draw by assuming others think just as they do are generally safe. problems are encountered, however, especially in the complex environment of international communication in english, when participants in a conversation hold different assumptions because of membership in different groups. among the groups that can be significant are cultures or ethnic groups, professional and corporate groups, generation groups, or gender groups. the problem is, of course, exacerbated when communication is across more than one group boundary such as culture and gender. if one joined the conversation, the speaker and the hearer should reflect over the utterance actively in verbal or non-verb signals like gestures and face expressions, etc. to show that they are participating the conversation. the reflections should be 13 concerned with the conversation intention of the interlocutors and not only with the surface meaning of the utterances. so we say that communication is an interactive process. anyway the interaction of each participant is the power of the conversation development. and it makes the conversation dynamic. for each reflection can influence the topic of communication, the attitude of the other to join the communication, the strategies used by the other. all of those may make the form and content of communication uncertain and changeable. if we observe from the social aspect of communication, we can find that culture permeates the entire process. people are virtually creatures of their own culture, products of their own environment. so, in this sense, cultural reference plays vitally important role in helping people interpret each others behavior and arrive at more or less the same concepts or proposition. the process of communication is the recognition of the resemblances and differences of the two cultures. it is the mixture of the two cultures. it makes the conversation as the dynamic process, too. 2.4.the process of communication 2.4.1.the encoding and decoding in the communication by using language as a primary tool, man bridges his own thoughts with those of other man. the basic purpose that we communicate is to give and exchange information. this exchange can be divided into two processes: the encoding process and the decoding process. the encoding process is the first stage toward communication. it may be defined as the process of translating an already conceived idea into a message appropriate for transmission to a receiver. this stage can be subdivided into three steps: creation of the message; adaptation of the message to the intended receiver; and transmission of the message to the receiver. the encoding process is based on the senders perception of the way the receiver will perceive messages. the decoding process refers to the stage that describes the receivers reflections when he or she gets the transmitted message of the sender. this stage can be subdivided into four steps: attention; interpretation; evaluation; and response. 14 attention refers to either hearing or seeing the message, or in some cases, both hearing and seeing it. interpretation refers to the act of the receiver in which he believes the sender meant by the message transmitted. it is generally supposed that the receiver makes a conscious attempt to interpret the message correctly. this does not mean, that a correct interpretation will always result, but only that normally there is such an attempt on the part of the receiver. evaluation refers to the act that the receiver evaluates the message in terms of its meaning for himself when he has interpreted what he thinks the source meant by the message. response refers to the exact action that the receiver takes once the evaluation is completed. this response is, in some cases, an overt response, an act of behavior, or a covert response. anyway, a response is both overt and covert in many cases. communication is not such a single process as starting with the activity of speaking and ending up with the activity of listening; it is rather a complex process in which the speaker and the listener always change their roles. the speaker sends information to the listener first, the listener pe