机械加工@中英文翻译@外文翻译

1 1 TOOL WEAR MECHANISMS ON THE FLANK SURFACE OF CUTTING INSERTS FOR HIGH SPEED WET MACHINING 5.1 Introduction Almost every type of machining such as turning, milling, drilling, grinding., uses a cutting fluid to assist in the cost effective production of pa rts as set up standard required by the producer 1. Using coolant with some cutting tools material causes severe failure due to the lack of their resistance to thermal shock (like AL2O3 ceramics), used to turn steel. O ther cutting tools materials like cub ic boron nitride (C BN) can be used without coolant, due to the type of their function. The aim of using C BN is to raise the temperature of the workpice to high so it locally softens and can be easily machined. The reasons behind using cutting fluids can be summarized as follows. Extending the cutting tool life achieved by reducing heat generated and as a result less wear rate is achieved. It will also eliminate the heat from the shear zone and the formed chips. Cooling the work piece of high quality materia l under operation plays an important role since thermal distortion of the surface and subsurface damage is a result of excessive heat that must be eliminated or largely reduced to produce a high quality product. Reducing cutting forces by its lubricating e ffect at the contact interface region and washing and cleaning the cutting region during machining from small chips. The two main reasons for using cutting fluids are cooling and lubrication. Cutting Fluid as a Coolant: The fluid characteristics and condit ion of use determine the coolant action of the cutting fluid, which improves the heat transfer at the shear zone between the cutting edge, work piece, and cutting fluid. The properties of the coolant in this case must include a high heat capacity to carry away heat and good thermal conductivity to absorb the heat from the cutting region. The water -based coolant emulsion with its excellent high heat capacity is able to reduce tool wear 44. Cutting Fluid as a Lubricant: The purpose is to reduce friction bet ween the cutting edge, rake face and the work piece material or reducing the cutting forces (tangential component). As the friction drops the heat generated is dropped. As a result, the cutting tool wear rate is reduced and the surface finish is improved. 2 2 Cutting Fluid Properties Free of perceivable odor Preserve clarity throughout life Kind and unirritated to skin and eyes. Corrosion protection to the machine parts and work piece. Cost effective in terms off tool life, safety, dilution ratio, and fluid life. 1 5.1.1 Cutting Fluid Types There are two major categories of cutting fluids Neat Cutting Oils Neat cutting oils are poor in their coolant characteristics but have an excellent lubricity. They are applied by flooding the work area by a pump and re -circulated through a filter, tank and nozzles. This type is not diluted by water, and may contain lubricity and extreme-pressure additives to enhance their cutting performance properties. The usage of this type has been declining for their poor cooling ability, causing fire risk, proven to cause health and safety risk to the operator 1. Water Based or Water Soluble Cutting Fluids This group is subdivided into three categories: 1. Emulsion mineral soluble white- milky color as a result of emuls ion of oil in water. Contain from 40%-80% mineral oil and an emulsifying agent beside corrosion inhibitors, beside biocide to inhibit the bacteria growth. 2. Micro emulsion semi-synthetic invented in 1980s, has less oil concentration and/or higher emulsifier ratio 10%-40% oil. Due to the high levels of emulsifier the oil droplet size in the fluid are smaller which make the fluid more translucent and easy to see the work piece during operation. Other important benefit is in its ability to emulsify any leakage of oil from the machine parts in the cutting fluid, a corrosion inhibitors, and bacteria control. 3. Mineral oil free synthetic is a mix of chemicals, water, bacteria control, corrosion inhibitors, and dyes. Does not contain any mineral oils, and provides good visibility 3 3 .23 to the work piece. bare in mind that the lack of mineral oil in this type of cutting fluid needs to take more attention to machine parts lubrication since it should not leave an oily film on the machine parts, and might cause seals degradation due the lack of protection. 5.1.2 Cutting Fluid Selection Many factors influence the selection of cutting fluid； mainly work piece material, type of machining operation, machine tool parts, paints, and seals. Table 5-1 prepared at the machine tool industry research association 2 provides suggestions on the type of fluid to be used. 5.1.3 Coolant Management To achieve a high level of cutting fluids performance and cost effectiveness, a coolant recycling system should be installed in the factory. This system will reduce the amount of new purchased coolant concentrate and coolant disposable, which will reduce manufacturing cost. It either done by the company itself or be rented out, depends on the budget and management policy of the company 1. Table 5-1 Guide to the selection of cutting fluids for general workshop applications. Machining operation Workpiece material Free machining and low - carbon steels Medium- Carbon steels High Carbon and alloy steels Stainless and heat treated resistant alloys Grinding C lear type soluble oil, semi synthetic or chemical grinding fluid Turning General purpose, soluble oil, semi synthetic or synthetic fluid Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid Milling General purpose, soluble oil, semi synthetic or synthetic fluid Extreme- pressure soluble oil, semi- synthetic or synthetic fluid Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid(neat cutting oils may be necessary) 4 4 Drilling Extreme- pressure soluble oil, semi- synthetic or synthetic fluid Gear Shapping Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid Neat-cutting oils preferable Hobbing Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid (neat cutting oils may be preferable) Neat-cutting oils preferable Bratching Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid (neat cutting oils may be preferable) Tapping Ex reme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid(neat cutting oils may be necessary) Neat-cutting oils preferable Note: some entreis deliberately extend over two or more columns, indicating a wide range of possible applications. Other entries are confined to a specific class of work material. A dopt ed f rom E dw ard and Wright 2 5.2 Wear Mechanisms Under Wet High Speed Machining It is a common belief that coolant usage in metal cutting reduces cutting temperature and extends tools life. However, this research showed that this is not necessarily true to be generalized over cutting inserts materials. S imilar research was carried out on different cutting inserts materials and cutting condit ions supporting our results. Gu et al 36 have recorded a difference in tool wear mechanisms between dry and wet cutting of C 5 milling inserts. Tonshoff et al 44 also exhibited different wear mechanisms on AL2O3/TiC inserts in machining AS TM 5115, when using coolants emuls ions compared to dry cutting. In addition, Avila and Abrao 20 experienced difference in wear mechanisms activated at the flank side, when using different coolants in t esting AL2O3 lTiC tools in machining AIS I4340 steel. The wear mechanisms and the behavior of the cutting inserts studied in this research under wet high speed- machining (WHSM) 5 5 condition is not fully understood. Therefore, it was the attempt of this research to focus on the contributions in coating development and coating techniques of newly developed materials in order to upgrade their performance at tough machining conditions. This valuable research provides insight into production timesavings and increase in profitability. Cost reductions are essential in the competitive global economy； thus protecting local markets and consisting in the search of new ones. 5.3 Experimental Observations on Wear Mechanisms of Un-Coated Cemented Carbide C utting Inserts in Hig h Speed Wet Machining In this section, the observed wear mechanisms are presented of uncoated cemented carbide tool (KC313) in machining AS TM 4140 steel under wet condition. The overall performance of cemented carbide under using emulsion coolant has been improved in terms of extending tool life and reducing machining cost. Different types of wear mechanisms were activated at flank side of cutting inserts as a result of using coolant emuls ion during machining processes. This was due to the effect of coolant in reducing the average temperature of the cutting tool edge and shear zone during machining. As a result abrasive wear was reduced leading longer tool life. The materials of cutting tools behave differently to coolant because of their varied resistance to thermal shock. The following observations recorded the behavior of cemented carbide during high speed machining under wet cutting. F igure 5-1 shows the flank side of cutting inserts used at a cutting speed of 180m/min. The S EM images were recorded after 7 minutes of machining. It shows micro-abrasion wear, which identified by the narrow grooves along the flank side in the direction of metal flow, supported with similar observations documented by Barnes and P ashby 41 in testing through-coolant-drilling inserts of aluminum/S iC metal matrix composite. S ince the cutting edge is the weakest part of the cutting insert geometry, edge fracture started first due to the early non-smooth engagement between the tool and the work piece material. Also, this is due to stress concentrations that might lead to a cohesive failure on the transient filleted flank cutting wedge region 51, 52. The same image of micro -adhesion wear can be seen at the side and tool indicated by the half cone 27 shape on the side of cutting too l. To investigate further, a zoom in view was taken at 6 6 the flank side with a magnification of 1000 times and presented in F igure 5 -2A. It shows clear micro-abrasion wear aligned in the direction of metal flow, where the cobalt binder was worn first in a higher wear rate than WC grains which protruded as big spherical droplets. F igure 5-2B provides a zoom- in view that was taken at another location for the same flank side. Thermal pitting revealed by black spots in different depths and micro-cracks, propagated in mult i directions as a result of using coolant. Therefore, theii ial pitting, micro -adhesion and low levels of micro-abrasion activated under wet cutting； while high levels of micro -abrasion wear is activated under dry cutting (as presented in the previous Chapter). F igure 5-3A was taken for a cutting insert machined at 150mlmin. It shows a typical micro-adhesion wear, where quantities of chip metal were adhered at the flank side temporarily. Kopac 53 exhibited similar finding when testing HSS- TiN drill inserts in drilling S AE1045 steel. This adhered metal would later be plucked away taking grains of WC and binder from cutting inserts material and the process continues. In order to explore other types of wear that might exist, a zoom- in view with magnification of 750 times was taken as shown in F igure5 -3B. F igure 5-3B show two forms of wears； firstly, micro-thermal cracks indicated by perpendicular cracks located at the right side of the picture, and supported with similar findings of Deamley and Trent 27. Secondly, micro-abrasion wear at the left side of the image where the WC grains are to be plucked away after the cobalt binder was severely destroyed by micro-abrasion. Cobalt binders are small grains and WC is the big size grains. The severe distort ion of the binder along with the WC grains might be due to the activation of micro-adhesion and micro-abrasion F igure 5-1 S EM image of (KC313) showing micro abrasion and micro -adhesion (wet). 7 7 SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180m/min showing micro -abrasion where cobalt binder was worn first leaving protruded WC spherical droplets (wet). (a) SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180m/min showing thermal pitting (wet). F igure 5-2 Magnified views of (KC313) under wet cutting: (a) S EM micrographs of (KC313) at 180mlmin showing micro-abrasion where cobalt binder was worn first leaving protruded WC spherical droplets (wet ), (b) S EM micrographs of (KC313) at 180.m/min showing thermal pitting (wet ). SEM image showing micro-adhesion wear mechanism under 150m/min (wet). 8 8 (a) SEM image showing micro-thermal cracks, and micro-abrasion. F igure 5-3 Magnified views of (KC313) at 150m/min (wet): (a) S EM image showing micro-adhesion wear mechanism under 150m/min (wet), (b) S EM image showing micro- fatigue cracks, and micro-abrasion (wet). Wear at the time of cutting conditions of speed and coolant introduction. Therefore, micro- fatigue, micro-abrasion, and micro-adhesion wear mechanis ms are activated under wet condition, while high levels of micro -abrasion were observed under dry one. Next, F igure 5-4A was taken at the next lower speed (120m/min). It shows build up edge (BUE) that has sustained its existence throughout the life of the cutting tool, similar to Huang 13, Gu et al 36 and Venkatsh et al 55. This BUE has protected the tool edge and extended its life. Under dry cutting BUE has appeared at lower speeds (90 and 60 m/ min), but when introducing coolant BUE started to develop at higher speeds, This is due to the drop in shear zone temperature that affected the chip metal flow over the cutting tool edge, by reducing the ductility to a level higher than the one existing at dry condition cutting. As a result, chip metal starts accumulating easier at the interface between metal chip flow, cutting tool edge and crater surface to form a BUE. In addition to BUE formation, micro-abrasion wear was activated at this speed indicated by narrow grooves. To explore the possibility of other wear mechanisms a zoom- in view with a magnification of 3500 times was taken and shown in F igure 5 -4B. Micro- fatigue is evident by propagated cracks in the image similar to Deamley and Trent 27 finding. F urthermore, F igure 5-4B shows indications of micro-abrasion wear, revealed by the abrasion of cobalt binder and the remains of big protruded WC grains. However, the micro-abrasion appeared at this speed of 120m/min is less severe than the same type of micro -wear observed at 150 9 9 m/min speed, supported with Barnes 41 similar findings. Therefore, micro-abrasion, BUE and micro- fatigue were activated under wet condition while, adhesion, high levels micro-abrasion, and no BUE were under dry cutting. SEM im age of (KC313) showing build up edge under 120m/min (wet). (a) SEM im age of (KC3 13) showing micro-fatigue, and micro-abrasion (wet). F igure 5-4 S EM images o f (KC313) at 120m/min (wet), (a) S EM image of (KC313). showing build up edge, (b) S EM image of (K C 313) showing micro-fatigue and micro-abrasion 33 Figure 5-5 is for a cutting tool machined at 90m/min, that presents a good capture of one stage of tool life after the BUE has been plucked away. The bottom part of the flank side shows massive metal adhesion from the work piece material. The upper part of the figure at the edge shows edge fracture. To stand over the reason of edge fracture, the zoom- in view with magnification of 2000 times is presented in F igure 5-6A. The micro- fatigue crack image can be seen as well as micro-attrit ion revealed by numerous holes, and supported with Lim et al 31 observations on HSS- TiN inserts. As a result of BUE fracture from t he cutting tool edge, small quantities from the cutting tool material is plucked away leaving behind numerous holes. F igure 5-6B is another zoom- in view of the upper part of flank side with a magnification of 1000 times and shows micro -abrasion wear indicated by the narrow grooves. F urthermore, the exact type of micro - wear mechanism appeared at the flank side under 60 m/min. Therefore, in comparison with dry cutting at the cutting speed of 90 m/min and 60 m/min, less micro-abrasion, bigger BUE formation, and higher micro-attrition rate were activated. 10 10 Figure 5-5 SEM image showing tool edge after buildup edge was plucked away. SEM image showing micro-fatigue crack, and micro-attrition. (a) SEM image showing micro-abrasion. F igure 5-6 S EM images of (KC313) at 90m/min:(a) S EM image showing micro- fatigue crack, and micro-attrition, (b) S EM image showing micro-abrasion. 5.4 Experimental Observations on Wear Mechanisms of Coated Cemented Carbide with TiN- TiCN- TiN Coating in High Speed Wet 11 11 Machining Investigating the wear mechanisms of sandwich coating under wet cutting is presented in this section starting from early stages of wear. F igure 5 -7 shows early tool wear starting at the cutting edge when cutting at 410m/min. Edge fracture can be seen, it has started a t cutting edge due to non-smooth contact between tool, work piece, micro-abrasion and stress concentrations. To investigate further the other possible reasons behind edge fracture that leads to coating spalling, a zoom- in view with magnification of 2000 ti mes was taken and presented at F igure 5-8A. Coating fracture can be seen where fragments of TiN (upper coating) had been plucked away by metal chips. This took place as result of micro-abrasion that led to coating spalling. O n the other hand, the edge is t he weakest part of the cutting insert geometry and works as a stress concentrator might lead to a cohesive failure on the transient filleted flank cutting wedge region 51, 52. Both abrasion wear and stress concentration factor leave a non- uniform edge configuration at the micro scale after machining starts. Later small metal fragments started to adhere at the developed gaps to be later plucked away by the continuous chip movement as shown in F igure 5-8A. Another view of edge fracture was taken of the same cutting tool with a magnification of 2000 times as shown in F igure 5-8B. It presents fracture and crack at the honed tool edge. A schematic figure indicated by F igure 5-9, presented the progressive coated cutting inserts failure starting at the insert edge. It was also noticed during the inserts test that failure takes place first at the inserts edge then progressed toward the flank side. Consequently, a study on optimizing the cutting edge F igure 5-7 S EM image of (KC732) at 410m/min showing edge fractur e and micro-abrasion (wet). 12 12 SEM image showing edge fracture. (a) SEM image showing fracture and crack at the honed insert edge. F igure 5-8 S EM of (KC732) at 410m/min and early wear stage (wet): (a) S EM image showing edge fracture, (b) S EM image showing fr acture and crack at the honed insert edge. radius to improve coating adhesion, and its wear resistance, might be also a topic for future work. F igure 5-1.0A was taken after tool failure at a speed of 410m/min. It shows completely exposed substrate and severe sliding wear at the flank side. The coating exists at the crater surface and faces less wear than the flank side. Therefore it works as an upper protector for the cutting edge and most of the wear will take place at the flank side as sliding wear. F igu re 5-10B is a zoom- in view with magnification of 3500 times, and shows coating remaining at the flank side. Nonetheless, micro-abrasion and a slight tensile fracture in the direction of metal 13 13 chip flow. Ezugwa et al 28 and Kato 32 have exhibited simila r finding. However, the tensile fracture in this case is less in severity than what had been observed at dry cutting. This is due to the contribution of coolant in dropping the cutting temperature, which has reduced the plastic deformation at high temperature as a result. Hence, in comparison with the dry cutting at the same speed, tensile fracture was available with less severity and micro -abrasion/sliding. However, in dry cutting high levels of micro -abrasion, high levels of tensile fracture and sliding wear occurred. F igure 5- 11 was taken at early stages of wear at a speed of 360m/min. It shows sliding wear, coating spalling and a crack starting to develop between TiN and TiCN coating at honed tool edge. F igure5-12A shows nice presentation of what had bee n described earlier regarding the development of small fragments on the tool edge. The adhered metal fragments work along with micro -abrasion wear to cause coating spalling. SEM image showing sliding wear. (a) SEM image showing micro-abrasion and tensile fracture. F igure 5-10 S EM images of (KC732) at 410m/min after failure (wet): (a) S EM image showing sliding wear, (b) S EM image showing micro -abrasion 14 14 and tensile fracture. F igure 5-11 S EM image at early stage of wear of 360m/min (wet) showing coating and spalling developing crack between TiN and TiCN layers. The size of the metal chip adhered at the edge is almost 15g. Since it is unstable it will be later plucked away taking some fragments of coatings with it and the process continues. Another zoom in view with a magnification of 5000 times for the same insert is shown in F igure 5-12B indicating a newly developed crack between the coating layers. F igure 5-13A is taken of the same insert after failure when machining at 360m/min and wet condition. Coating spalling, and sliding wear can be seen and indicated by narrow grooves. In addition, initial development of notch wear can be seen at the maximum depth of cut. Further investigation is carried out by taking a zoom in view with a magnification of 2000 times as shown in F igure 5-13B. A clear micro-abrasion wear and micro- fatigue cracks were developed as shown, which extended deeply through out the entire three coating layers deep until the substrate. Therefore, in comparison with dry cutting, micro- fatigue crack, less tensile fracture, less micro-abrasion wear were activated at wet cutting. While micro - fatigue crack, high levels of micro-abrasion, and high levels of tensile fracture are distinguish the type of wear under dry condition at the same cutting spee d. Next, F igure 5-14A is taken for cutting tools machined at 310m/min. The results are similar to the previous inserts machined at 360m/ min, where adhesion of metal fragments occurred at the tool edge, sliding wear and coating spalling. In addition, the black spot appeared at the top of the figure on the crater surface is a void resulting from imperfections in the coating process. At this condition, the crater surface will be worn faster than the flank surface. 15 15 SEM image showing adhered metal fragments at tool edge. (a) SEM image showing developed crack between coating layers. F igure 5-12 S EM image of (KC732) at early wear 360m/min (wet): (a) S EM image showing adhered metal fragments at tool edge, (b) S EM image showing developed crack between coating layers. 16 16 (a) SEM image showing coating spalling and sliding wear after tool failure (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasion, and micro-fatigue cracks developed between coating layers Figure 5-13 SEM image of KC732 after failure machined at 360m/min (b) (wet): (a) S EM image showing coating spalling and sliding wear after tool failure, (b) S EM image showing micro-abrasion, and micro- fatigue cracks developed between coating layers. 17 17 翻译 ： 在高速潮湿机械加工条件下后刀面表层磨损机理 5.1 介绍 几乎每类型用机器制造譬如转动 , 碾碎 , 钻井 , 研 ., 使用切口流体协助零件的有效的生产当设定标准由生产商 1 需要。 使用蓄冷剂以一些切割工具物质起因严厉失败由于缺乏他们的对热冲击的抵抗 (如 AL2.O3 陶瓷 ), 过去经常转动钢。 其它切割工具材料象立方体硼氮化物 (C BN ) 可能被使用没有蓄冷剂 , 由于类型他们的作用。 使用 C BN 的目标将提高工件 的温度对上流因此它变柔和和当地可能容易地用机器制造。 原因在使用切削液之后可能被总结如下。 . 延长切割工具寿命由减少达到热量引起和结果较少磨损率达到。 它从剪区域和被形成的芯片并且将散热。 . 冷却高质量材料工作片断在操作之下充当一个重要角色从表面的热量畸变并且 表层下损伤是必须被消灭或主要使到产物一个高质量产品降低过热的结果。 . 减少切削力由它润滑的作用在联接口区域和清洁切削区在用机器制造从小芯片期间。 二个主要原因至于使用切口流体冷却和润滑。 切削液作为蓄冷剂 : 用途的可变的特征和情况确定切口流体的蓄冷剂行动 , 哪些改进热传递在剪区域在先锋之间 , 工作片断 , 并且切口流体。 蓄冷剂的物产必须在这种情况下包括高热容量使热和好导热性失去控制吸收热从切口区域。 水基的蓄冷剂乳化液以它的优秀高热容量能减少工具穿戴 44 。 切削液作为润滑剂 : 目的将减少摩擦 在先锋之间 , 倾斜面孔和工作片断材料或减少切口力量 (正切组分 ) 。 当摩擦下降热引起下降。 结果 , 切割工具穿戴率被减少并且表面结束被改进。 切削液物产 免于可感知的气味 保存清晰在生活中 种类和 表层和孔。 腐蚀保护对机器零件和工作编结。 有效用术语工具生活 , 安全 , 稀释比率 , 并且可变的生活。 1 5.1.1 切削液类型 切削液有二个主要类别 清洁的切削液 清洁的切削液是穷的在他们的蓄冷剂特征是很好的润滑液。 他们由充斥应用工作区域由泵浦和被重新传布通过过滤器 , 坦克和喷管。 这 型由水不稀释 , 并且可以包含润滑和极压力添加剂提高他们的切口表现。 这型用法降低他们的 18 18 冷却的能力 , 避免火灾危险 , 保证操作员健康与安全风险 1 。 . 水基于的或水溶切削液 这个小组被细分入三个类别 : 1. 乳化 液 矿 物 可溶 解 白色 乳 状颜 色 由于 油乳 化 液在 水中 。 包 含从40%-80% 矿物油和一种乳化剂在腐蚀抗化剂旁边 , 在生物杀伤剂旁边禁止细菌成长。 2. 微乳化液 半合成 发明了在 80 年代之内 , 有较少油含量和或更高的乳化剂比率 10%-40% 油。 由于使流体更加透亮和容易看工作片断在 操作期间的高水平乳化剂油小滴大小在流体更小。 其它重要好处是在它的能力乳化油任一漏出从机器零件在切口流体 , 腐蚀抗化剂 , 并且细菌控制。 3. 矿物油自由 合成物质 是化学制品的混合 , 水 , 细菌控制 , 腐蚀抗化剂 , 并且染料。 不包含任何矿物油 , 并且提供好可见性 流动性需要采取对机器零件润滑的更多注意因为它不应该留下油膜在机器零件 , 并且可能导致密封严 5.1.2 切削液选择 许多因素影响切削液的选择 ； 主要工作材料片段 , 类型机器的操作 , 机械工具零件 , 油漆 , 并且密封。 表 5-1 准备在机械工 具产业研究协会提供建议在类型流体被使用。 5.1.3 蓄冷剂管理 达到一个高水平切削液表现和成本实效 , 蓄冷剂回收系统应该被安装在工厂。 这个系统将减少相当数量新被购买的蓄冷剂集中和蓄冷剂一次性 , 哪些将减少制造费用。 它或者由公司做或被租赁 , 取决于公司预算和管理方针。 表 5-1 指南对于切口流体的选择为一般车间应用。 机器制造 操作 制件材料 自由用机器制造 并且低碳钢 媒介碳钢 高碳钢 防 锈 和 热处理 抗性合金 磨削 清楚的型可溶解油 , 半合成物质或化学制品研的流体 车削 一般用途 , 可溶解油 , 半 综合性或综合性流体 极压可溶解油 , 半合成或合成性流体 铣削 一般目的 , 可溶解油 ,半合成物质 或 合 成 物 质流体 极压可溶物 油 ,半 合 成物质或 综合性流体 极压可溶解油 , 半合成或综合性流体（清洁的切削液可能是必要） 钻削 极压溶物油 ,半 合 成 物 质或 综合性流体 19 19 插齿 极压溶解油 , 半合成或综合性流体 整洁切口上油更好 滚齿 极压可溶解油 , 半合成或合成性流体 (整洁的切口油也许是更好的 ) 清 洁 的 切削液 珩齿 极压可溶解油 , 半合成或合成性流体 ( 清洁的切削液也许是更好的 ) 轻拍 极压可溶解油 ,半合成或合成性流体 (切削液也许是必要的 ) 清洁的切削液更好 注 : 一些词条故意地延伸二个或更多专栏 , 表明可能大范围的应用。 其它词条被限制对工作材料具体组。 采用爱德华和怀特 5.2 机器磨损在湿高速用机器制造之下 这是共同的信仰 , 蓄冷剂用法在金属切口减少切口温度和延长工具生活。 但是 , 这研究表示 , 这不一定是真实的被推断在切口插入物材料。 相似的研究被执行了对不同的切口插入物材料和切口情况支持我们的结果。 顾 等 36 记录了在工具磨损 机制上的 一个区别 在 C5 干燥 和湿切 口碾碎 的 插入物之 间。 Tonshoff（人名） 等 44 并且陈列了不同的穿戴机制在 AL2.O 3/TiC 插入物在用机器制造 AS TM 5115, 当使用蓄冷剂乳化液与干燥切口比较了。 另外 , Avila 和 Abrao 20 体验了在穿戴机制上的区别被激活在侧面边 , 当使用不同的蓄冷剂在测试 AL2.O3lTiC 工具在用机器制造 AISI4340 钢。磨损机制和切口插入物的行为被学习在这研究在湿上流速度用机器制造的 (WHSM) 情况下不充分地被了解。 所以 , 这是这研究尝试集中于贡献在涂层发展和最近被开发的材料涂层技术为了升级他们的表现在坚韧用机器制造的情况。 这可贵的研究提供在有利的洞察入生产省时和增量。在竞争全球性经济中成本的降低是根本的解决方法 ； 这样保护了地方市场和寻找新的市场。 5.3 实验性观察在未上漆的用水泥涂的碳化物切口插入物穿戴机制在高速湿用机器制造 在这个 部分 , 被观 察的 穿戴机 制被 提出 未上漆 的用 水泥涂 的碳 化物 工具(KC313) 在用机器制造 AS TM 4140 钢在潮湿情况下。 用水泥涂的碳化物整体表现在使用乳化液蓄冷剂之下被改进了根据延伸的工具生活和减少用机器制造的费用。 不同的类 型穿戴机制被激活了在切口插入物的侧面边由于使用蓄 20 20 冷剂乳化液在用机器制造的过程期间。 这归结于蓄冷剂的作用在减少切割工具边缘和剪区域的平均温度在用机器制造期间。 结果磨蚀穿戴被减少了主导的更长的工具生活。 切割工具材料不同地表现对蓄冷剂由于他们对热冲击的各种各样的抵抗。 以下观察记录了用水泥涂的碳化物行为在高速用机器制造期间在湿切口之下。 图 5-1 展示切口插入物的侧面边被使用以 180m/ 的切口速度分钟。 S EM 图象被记录了在 7 分钟用机器制造以后。 它显示微磨蚀穿戴 , 哪些由狭窄的凹线辨认沿侧面边在金属 流程的方向 , 支持以相似的观察由巴恩斯和 Pashby（人名） 41 提供在铝里测试的通过蓄冷剂钻井插入物 S iC 金属矩阵综合。 因为先锋是切口插入物几何的最微弱的部份 , 渐近破裂开始的第一由于早期的非光滑的订婚在工具和工作片断材料之间。 并且 , 这归结于也许导致言词一致的失败在瞬变被去骨切片的侧面切口楔子区域的重音集中 51, 52 。 微黏附力穿戴的同样图象能看在边和工具由半锥体表明 127 形状在切割工具的边。 调查进一步 , 徒升视线内被采取了在 侧面边以 1000 次的放大和提出在图 5-2.A 。 它显示清楚的微磨蚀穿戴被排列在金属流程的方向 , 那里钴黏合剂比推出作为大球状小滴的 WC 五谷被佩带了首先在更高的穿戴率。 图 5-2B 提供 a 迅速移动在被采取在其它地点为同样侧面边的观点。 热量点蚀由黑斑点显露用不同的深度和微小的裂缝 , 繁殖在多方向由于使用蓄冷剂。 所以 点蚀 , 微黏附力和微磨蚀的低水平被激活在湿切口之下 ； 当高水平微磨蚀穿戴被激活在干燥切口之下 (依照被提出在早先章节 ) 。 图 5-3.A 被采取了为切口插入物用机器制造在 150mlmin 。 它显示一身典型的微黏附力穿戴 , 那里 芯片金属的数量临时地被遵守了在侧面边。 Kopac 53 陈列了相似发现测试 HSS 锡钻子插入物在钻井 SAE1045 钢里。 这种被遵守的金属以后会被采拿走 WC 五谷并且黏合剂从切口插入材料并且过程继续。 为了探索也许存在的其它类型穿戴 , a 迅速移动在看法以 750 次的放大被采取了依照被显示在图 5-3B 。 图 5-3B 展示二穿戴方式 ； 首先 , 微热量镇压由垂直镇压表明位于图片的右边 , 并且支持以 Deamley 和 Trent 27 的 相似的研究结果。 第二 , 微磨蚀穿戴在 WC 五谷将被采图 象的左边在钴黏合剂被微磨蚀严厉地毁坏了之后。 钴黏合剂是小五谷并且 WC 是大大小五谷。 黏合剂的严厉畸变与 WC 五谷一起也许归结于微黏附力和微磨蚀的活化作用 21 21 图 5-1 SEM 图象 (KC313) 显示微磨蚀和微黏附力 (湿 ) 。 (a) SEM 微写器 (KC313) 在 180m/分钟显示微磨蚀何处钴黏合剂被佩带了首先留下被推出的 WC 球状小滴 (湿 ) 。 (b) SEM 微写器 (KC313) 在 180m/分钟显示热量点蚀 (湿 ) 。 图 5-2 被扩大化的看法 (KC313) 在湿切口之下 : (a) S EM 微写器 (KC313) 在钴黏合剂被佩带首先留下被推出的 WC 球状小滴的 180mlmin 显示的微磨蚀 (湿 ), 22 22 (b) SEM 微写器 (KC313) 在 180 。 m/分钟显示热量点蚀 (湿 ) 。 (a) SEM 图象显示微黏附力穿戴机制在 150m/ 之下分钟 (湿 ) 。 (b) (b) SEM 图象显示微热量镇压 , 并且微磨蚀。 图 5-3 被扩大化的看法 (KC313) 在 150m/分钟 (湿 ): (a) S EM 图象显示微黏附力穿戴机制在 150m/ 之下分钟 (湿 ), (b) S EM 图象显示微疲劳镇压 , 并且微磨蚀(湿 ) 。 佩带在速度和蓄冷剂介绍的切口情况之时。 所以 , 微疲劳 , 微磨蚀 , 并且微黏附力穿戴机制被激活在湿情况下 , 当高水平微磨蚀被观察了在干燥一个之下。 其次 , 图 5-4.A 被采取了以下更低的速度 (120m/分钟 ) 。 它显示组合边缘 (BUE) 承受了它的存在在切割工具的生活中 , 相似与黄 13 , 顾 等 36 并且Venkatsh 等 55 。 这 BUE 保护了工具边缘和延长它的生活。 在干燥切口之下 BUE 出现以更低的速度 (90 和 60 m/分钟 ), 但当介绍蓄冷剂 BUE 开始 显现出以更高的速度 , 这归结于下落在剪区域温度影响芯片金属流程在切割工具边缘 , 由使延展性降低到一平实高级比那个存在在干燥条件切口。 结果 , 芯片金属起动积累容易在接口在金属芯片流程之间 , 切割工具边缘和火山口浮出水 23 23 面形成 BUE 。 除 BUE 形成之外 , 微磨蚀穿戴被激活了以这速度由狭窄的凹线表明。 探索其它穿戴机制 a 的可能性迅速移动在看法以 3500 次的放大被采取了和被显示了在图 5-4B 。 微疲劳是显然的由被繁殖的镇压在图象相似与 Deamley 和Trent 27 发现。 此外 , 图 5-4B 显示微磨蚀穿戴的征兆 , 由钴黏合剂磨蚀和大被推出的 WC 五谷遗骸的显露。 但是 , 微磨蚀出现以这 120m/ 的速度分钟比同样型微佩带观察在 150 m/ 较不严厉的极小速度 , 支持以巴恩斯 41 个 相似的研究结果。 所以 , 微磨蚀 , BUE 和微疲劳被激活了在湿情况下当 , 黏附力 , 高水平微磨蚀 , 并且 BUE 不是在干燥切口之下。 (a) (KC313) 显示组合边缘的 SEM 图象在 120m/ 之下分钟 (湿 ) 。 (b) (KC3 13) 显示微疲劳的 SEM 图象 , 并且微磨蚀 (湿 ) 。 图 5-4 SEM 图象 (KC313) 在 120m/分钟 (湿 ), (a) S EM 图象 (KC313) 。 显示组合边缘 , (b) (KC313) 显示微疲劳和微磨蚀的 SEM 图象。 133 图 5-5 是为切割工具用机器制造在 90m/分钟 , 那礼物好 工具生活一个阶段捕获在 BUE 被采了之后。 侧面旁边展示巨型的金属黏附力的底部从工作片断材料。 图的上部在边缘显示边缘破裂。 站立在边缘破裂原 24 24 因 , 迅速移动在看法以 2000 次的放大被提出在图 5-6.A 。 微疲劳裂缝图象能看并且微损耗由许多孔显露 , 并且支持以 Lim 等 31 观察在 HS S 锡插入物。 由于 BUE 破裂从切割工具边缘 , 少量从切割工具材料是被采的忘记的许多孔。 图 5-6B 是另迅速移动在景色的侧面边的上部以 1000 次的放大和显示微磨蚀穿戴由狭窄的凹线表明。 此外 , 确切的型微佩带机制出现在侧面边在 60 m/ 之下分钟。 所以 , 与干燥切口比较以 90 m/ 的切口速度分钟和 60 m/分钟 , 较少微磨蚀 , 更大的 BUE 形成 , 并且更高的微损耗率被激活了。 图 5-5 SEM 图象显示工具边缘在积累边缘以后被采了。 (a) SEM 图象显示微疲劳裂缝 , 并且微损耗。 25 25 (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀。 图 5-6 S EM 图象 (KC313) 在 90m/分钟 :(a) S EM 图象显示微疲劳裂缝 , 并且微损耗 , (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀。 5.4 实验性观察在上漆的用水泥涂的碳化物穿戴机制与锡 TiCN 锡涂层在高速湿用机器制造 调查三明治涂层穿戴机制在湿切口之下被提出在这个部分从穿戴开始早期。 图 5-7 展示早期工具穿戴开始在先锋当切开在 410m/分钟。 边缘破裂能被看见 , 它开始了在先锋适当非光滑的联络在工具之间 , 工作片断 , 微磨蚀和重音集中。 调 查进一步其它可能的原因在那导致涂层剥落的边缘破裂之后 , a 迅速移动在看法以 2000 次的放大被采取了和被提出了在图 5-8.A 。 涂层破裂能被看见锡 (的地方上部涂层的 ) 片段被金属芯片采了。 这结果微磨蚀的发生了那导致涂层剥落。 另一方面 , 边缘是切口插入物几何和工作的最微弱的部份如同重音集中器也许导致言词一致的失败在瞬变被去骨切片的侧面切口楔子区域 51, 52 。 磨蚀穿戴和重音集中因素留下一种不均匀的边缘配置在微标度在用机器制造的开始以后。 最新小金属片段开始遵守在被开发的空白被连续的芯片运动以后采依照被显示在上图 5-8.A 。 边缘破裂其它观点依照被显示被采取了同样切割工具以 2000 次的放大在上图 5-8B 。 它提出破裂和裂缝在磨刀的工具边缘。 一个概要图由图片表明 5-9, 提出了进步上漆的切口插入物失败开始在插入物边缘。 它并且被注意了在插入物期间测试 , 失败发生在插入物首先渐近然后进步往侧面边。 结果 , 关于优选先锋的一项研究 26 26 图 5-7 SEM 图象 (KC732) 在 410m/极小的显示的边缘破裂和微磨蚀 (湿 ) (a) SEM 图象显示边缘破裂。 (b) SEM 图象显示破