水利水电工程专业英语——水工结构篇.doc

.水利水电工程专业英语水工结构篇1. Planning Approach and its Physical Factors1. 规划方法和物理因素Dams are one of the groups of important civil engineering work constructed by man for his physical, economic, and environmental betterment. This list also includes waterways, highways, bridges, pipelines, electrical transmission lines, dikes and levees, railroads, tunnels, jetties, breakwaters, docks, irrigation structures, recreational lakes, and others.大坝是重要的土建工程组之一，由人们以改善其物质、经济和环境的目的而建设。其中还包括航道、公路、桥梁、管道、输电线路、堤坝和防洪堤、铁路、隧道、导流堤、防波堤、码头、灌溉建筑物、旅游湖泊，等等。In almost every water project plan or situation one or more dams are important elements of a project plan. However, it is seldom that the dam is the sole or only facility. In a flood control plan, a dam and reservoir may be the only project works, but it is more likely accompanied advantageously with levees and other channel control works. In water supply-irrigation, municipal, industrial, and domestic-and in power generation, dams are one of a combination of project features needed to accomplish the desired project. In such cases, the dam cannot be justified independently of the other project facilities. To be economically, financially, socially, and environmentally justified it must be evaluated jointly with the group combination of project features and the total plan evaluated and judged as to its merit. Planning for a dam is one part of the planning process for the total project objective. The location, size, and design of a dam will be influenced, and often controlled, by the selection of the attainable and best warranted overall project plan.Physical factors of plan formulation include the followings:在几乎所有的水工程计划或选址中，一个或多个大坝对于一个项目计划来说是非常重要的因素。但是，大坝也很少是唯一的设施。在一个防洪计划中，一个大坝和水库可能是仅有的工作工程，但是它很可能更有效地配有堤坝和其他渠道控制工程。在灌溉供水、市政、工业和生活以及发电中，大坝是为了达到设计目的的项目功能组合之一。因此，大坝孤立于其他的工程设施是不合理的。为了从经济、财政、社会和环境方面证明其合理性，就必须结合项目特点和整个计划对其优点进行评估和判断。对大坝的规划是对整个项目目标规划过程的一部分。大坝的坝址、规模和设计将会受到可达到的和最佳选择的整个项目计划的影响，并且经常受到其控制。计划制定的物理因素包括以下几个方面：1.1 Water Supply Available for Development1.1 可供水量Except for flood control projects water is the essential commodity; in flood control projects its sudden excess is the problem. The occurrence of surface runoff stream flows results from weather phenomena which are understood only in general principle. For water project planning purposes reliance is placed on the premise of recurring stream flows with future quantities and variations similar to those that have occurred in the past. Direct measurements of flows of some streams over several decades, together with measurements of precipitation over periods of a century or more at some locations, support the premise. Acknowledging that a more extreme flood or drought can occur than has actually been measured or observed in a few recent time periods, the historical measurements of stream flows are accepted as the best available forecasts of stream flow supplies for water conservation developments. Theories and principles of probability of variation of stream flow quantities are sometimes applied, but most commonly an actual record of some years of duration is used, unmodified, for calculating the water conservation accomplishment of a plan. Where measurements have not been made, or only a very few made, at a specific dam site it is possible to estimate or synthesize stream flow statistics at any dam site by reliable correlation methods.除防洪工程外，水都是必需品；在防洪工程中洪水突然过量则是问题。地表径流河流流量的发生是由仅在一般原则下理解的天气现象引起的。水工程规划目的的依据是基于经常性水流且其未来的水量和变化与过去已经发生过的相类似的前提下。该前提可以靠某些河流径流几十年间的直接测量以及某些地点一个世纪或更长时间的降雨测量来支持。认识到可能发生一个比近段时期所测量或观测更加极端的洪水或干旱，所以河流流量的历史测量值是对水保持发展中河流流量供应现有最佳的预测。径流量变化概率的理论和原则有时是被应用的，但是更常见的是应用多年实际记录、未经修改的值，来计算一个计划中水保持的成就。在某些无测量或少测量数据地区，在某个特定坝址，根据可靠的相关方法可以估计或综合退出任何坝址处的径流数据。1.2 Flood Flows1.2 洪水流量Because of the enormous damage or potential damage caused by a flood of the magnitude that occurs once in a hundred years or less, stream gaging records of 10,20 or 30 years are inadequate, although of some use, in planning flood control projects or for the spillway design of any dam. In addition to any actual measurements of peak flood flows (usually difficult to obtain even when a stream is being gaged) the project planner uses other techniques of estimating the magnitude of floods. These include (1) observations of high water marks evidenced by previous floods and computations of the probable flow from flood channel dimensions, (2) records of actual measurements (including duration time) of high rainfall intensities at weather stations in the watershed area above a dam site or nearest comparable location, applied to computations of runoff resulting there from.因为由百年一遇或更低的洪水所造成的巨大损害或潜在损害，10、20或30年的流量计量记录是不够的，尽管其在规划防洪工程或在任意大坝溢洪道的设计中有些用处。除了洪峰流量的实际测量值（通常难以获得，即使在流量被测量时）外，项目规划者使用其他评估洪水规模的技术。这些包括：（1）由此前洪水提供的高水位标志的观测值并由此计算行洪通道内的可能的流量，（2）在流域中坝址以上或最近的可比较地点气象站高降雨强度的实际测量记录（包括持续时间），并由此应用到径流的计算中。1.3 Locations of Project Sites1.3项目地点位置Two principal factors determine the location of water conservation project facilities: (1) the areas of water service need, and (2) location or locations of water supply available for development. The connecting link is a water conveyance facility. Where the water conveyance distance is long, or where pumping is required, the cost of conveyance is important in choosing locations for water conservation development. It is desirable, where possible, to locate the source at a higher elevation than the service area to avoid pumping costs. Obviously, there is also economy in having a water source near the place of use.确定蓄水工程设施有两个主要因素：（1）蓄水地区，及（2）可供开发供水的地点。二者的连接环节是输水设施。在输水距离远或是需要提水的地点，考虑开发蓄水地点时输水成本很重要。最好是在可行的地区将水源设置在比受水地区高的地点，这样可以避免提水成本。很明显，将水源设置在用水地区附近也很经济。The same consideration applies to selection of hydroelectric power generation sites, except that elevation is not a factor in power transmission.同样的考虑也适用于水电站厂址的选取，除了高程不是电力传输的影响因素。1.4 Suitability of Available Dam Sites1.4可用坝址的适用性The saying “you can build a dam anywhere if you spend enough money” only means that some sites are extremely unsatisfactory. Obviously, a site should be in a narrow section of a stream channel and where both abutments have sufficient height for the need. The foundation, including abutments, should be of rock or consolidated materials sufficiently strong to support the structure and they must be watertight or so nearly so that excess leakage can be prevented by sealing any cracks or fissures in the foundation with a grouting material or closing the leakage paths by placing a blanket of impervious material in the reservoir area upstream from the dam site.“如果你花足够的钱，你就可以在任何地方建坝”这个说法仅仅意味着有些坝址相当不令人满意。很明显，一个坝址应该在河流通道的狭窄地段，并且两个坝肩都应有满足需求足够的高度。坝基，包括坝肩，应该为足够坚硬以支撑其结构的石质或是固结材料，并且它们必须是防水的或渗透性较弱，因此可通过用灌浆材料将坝基的裂隙和裂缝密封以阻止过量的渗流，或者在坝址上游库区设置不透水层以关闭渗流通道。Adequate geological inspections of foundation abutments, spillway and bypass tunnel sites are necessary to provide assurance of suitability.要确保适用性，必须提供足够的坝基、坝肩、溢洪道和旁路隧道地址足够的地质核查。Obviously, a dam site is to be avoided if it is on or very close to a known active earthquake fault.显然，坝址要避免安排在一个已知的活断层上或其附近。Since a dam is a massive structure it is necessary to locate an adequate supply of construction materials within economical hauling distances of the dam site. Depending upon the type of dam, these materials may include aggregates for concrete manufacture, impervious earth materials, pervious materials, and rock for rock fills or riprap.由于坝体结构庞大，必须要将足够的建筑材料供给设置在坝址的经济运距范围内。根据不同的坝型，这些材料可能包括水泥制造类、防渗土料、渗透性材料，以及用于堆石或护坡的石料。1.5 Suitability of Reservoir Sites1.5库址的适应性 To obtain economical storage capacity a reservoir site should be wide in comparison to the dam site and should be on a stream having a low or gentle gradient to obtain a long reservoir in proportion to the height of the dam. Geological considerations generally require that the site not be on formations that leak excessively, and that there not be any risk of large landslides into the reservoir. Consideration should be given to any important mineral deposits in the area which may be of commercial value either at present or at some future time. The mining of some types of mineral deposits above a reservoir site may have accelerated leaching and solution of chemicals which can be concentrated in reservoir storage with objectionable effects.为获得经济库容库址应该比坝址宽，且应在一个坡度低缓的河段中，以获得与大坝高度成正比的狭长水库。地址考虑一般要求库址不应设置在大渗流构造上，并且不应有任何大的库内滑坡的风险。应考虑该地区所有现在或未来有经济价值的重要矿藏。库址上某些类型矿藏的开采可能会加速渗流和化学物质的溶解，它们可能在水库中聚集而起到消极的效果。Many otherwise attractive reservoir sites are on valuable land being used for other purposes: agriculture, forestry, and habitation by people. There may be important roads, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines through a site. The necessary relocation of such facilities and inhabitants and the loss of the land use may be a major and overriding cost of a specific dam and reservoir plan. Adequate plan formulation requires that consideration be given and comparisons made of all reasonable alternative dam and reservoir sites before selecting the project plan.此外还有有吸引力的库址位于有其他用途的宝贵的土地上：农业、林业以及用于人们居住。那里可能有穿过该地的重要的道路、铁路、管线和传输线路。这些设施和居民必要的重新安置及土地利用的损失可能你是某一具体大坝和水库方案的重要或压倒一切的成本。充足的方案编制须要在选择项目方案前考虑并比较所有合理的坝址和库址。1.6 Physical Site limitations1.6物理站点的限制Topographic or geological conditions frequently impose a practical or safe limit on the height of a dam. The quality and quantity of available construction materials may set the limit which a designer will not exceed for safety and stability of the structure. The continuing worldwide experiences in construction and operation of high dams provide guidelines on practical maximum heights. Among the considerations are the problems of constructing and maintaining spillways and outlet control valves operating to dissipate the energy of high-head water discharges.地形和地质条件经常会对大坝的高度施加实际或安全限制。可获得的建筑材料的质量和数量可能会设置限制，设计师出于对结构安全性和稳定性的考虑不会超过这个限制。世界范围内高坝的建设和运营的不断增长的经验为实用最高高度提供了指导。建设和维护溢洪道以及高水头泄流消能的出口控制阀操作问题均在考虑之中。Practical physical size limitations of reservoirs may be the limiting elevations of the reservoir rim or the risk of landslides if induced by higher storage levels. The other limitations are essentially economic and social ones-increased displacement of people, relocation costs, and loss of land use. There is also the water supply limitation. A reservoir might be constructed so large that it would never be filled while making ordinary and usual water withdrawals for the project functions.水库实际物理尺寸的限制可能是水库边缘高程的限制或由高储水水位诱发的滑坡风险。其他的限制基本上都是经济和社会因素移民安置、重置费和土地利用损失的增加。还有供水限制。一个水库可以被建的足够大，以至于当实现项目功能中一般和日常取水时它永远不会被蓄满。1.7 Sedimentation Rates1.7 淤积速率Every stream carries sediment; every reservoir retains sediment. In time, every on-stream reservoir will fill with sediment and lose its water-storage function.每条河都携带沉淀物；每座水库都积存沉积物。随着时间的推移，每一个在流水库将被泥沙填满而失去蓄水的功能。Sediment transportation rates vary greatly in different streams, depending on the rates and volumes of stream flows but more importantly on the erosion conditions of the watershed.不同河流中输沙率变化很大，这取决于径流流速和流量，但是更重要的是流域内的水土流失状况。Stream-borne sediments occur in two types-suspended sediments and bed load. Suspended sediments settle slowly in still water and are considerably dispersed over a reservoir, hence near the dam. The coarser bed load sediments are carried by the higher velocity flows and are trapped in a reservoir near the stream entry points. One concern about such deposits is that, in addition to reducing reservoir volume, they may cause a stream channel to aggrade just above the point where it enters the reservoir, possibly requiring extra clearance to be built on a bridge or other structure at that site.河流夹带的泥沙有两种类型悬移质泥沙和推移质泥沙。悬移质泥沙在静水中慢慢沉淀并大范围分布在水库中，因此距离大坝较近。粗糙的推移质泥沙被高速水流携带并被限制在水库水流入口点附近。关于这种沉积的一个考虑，除了减少库容外，它们还可能造成流道淤积高于它进入水库的地点，可能需要在该点的桥梁或其它结构上建造额外的清理设施。With respect to plan selection and project designs the following guidelines apply：(1)Where there is a choice, avoid constructing storage on a stream having large sediment loads; (2) Provide, as part of the gross reservoir volume, space for the accumulation of sediment in estimated amount at least equal to the intended economic life of the reservoir-usually 100 years or more; (3)Design the reservoir outlet at the dam at least as high as the expected silt accumulation level at the point(the outlet may be higher if the plan calls for maintaining a higher minimum reservoir pool for any purpose); (4) Provide outlets at more than one level if cost is not excessive; (5)Consider , in the project plan, the possibility and the suitability of sites for constructing sediment detention basins short distance above the reservoir; (6) Consider the merits, possible methods, and costs of providing watershed protection and management against accelerated erosion.以下准则适用于方案选择和项目设计：（1）当有其他选择时，避免在一条含沙量大的河流上建设水库；（2）作为总库容的一部分，提供至少与水库设计经济寿命（100年或以上）内的预计的泥沙淤积量相同的空间；（3）在大坝处设计水库出口，至少与该处预期的泥沙淤积具有相同的高度（如果方案处于某种目的要求保持较高的最小库容，那么出口可能会更高）；（4）在不超成本的条件下设置超过一个高程；（5）在项目方案中考虑在水库上游短距离处建设泥沙滞蓄区的可能性和适合性；（6）考虑提供控制水土流失加剧的流域保护和管理的有点、可能的方法及成本。2. Selection of Dam Sites and Sizes2. 坝址及大坝规模的选择The dam sites are determined by the functions of the project. The exact site within the general location must be determined by careful project consideration and systematic studies. Upon completion of the feasibility-grade investigations the sites and the size of project dams have been provisionally selected. It is probable that these selections will prove to be the final ones, but the possibilities remain of making some further adjustments in the final, pre-construction phases of investigations. An adjustment of capacity of a storage reservoir may prove to be necessary; this, or any new design data may disclose the need of changing the axis location of the dam even though the reservoir site remains the same. Latest criteria on the project functional requirements of a diversion or afterbay dam may require an adjustment of dam height, or in an exceptional case a change of the site.坝址由工程的功能决定。大致位置内的确切坝址必须经过细致的工程考虑和系统的研究确定。当可行性阶段研究完成时，大坝工程的坝址和规模就暂时被选定了。这些选择可能会被证明是最终选择，但是这种可能性也要有最后进一步的调整，即施工前阶段的研究。水库库容的调整可能被证明是必需的；而这，或者任何新的设计数据可能显示有必要改变坝轴线的位置，即使水库位置保持不变。关于导流或尾水池坝功能要求的最新标准可能要求对拔高进行调整，特殊情况下可能会改变坝址。In the shaping up of the project plan to this point the following steps will have been taken affecting dam site and size selection: 在编制工程方案时以下步骤的选择会影响坝址和规模的选择：1) The project functions will have been decided. The project may be single-purpose, or may include two or more functions. This is determined by the plan formulation studies in which valuations are made to test whether the inclusion of more than one project function is economically justified.1）工程功能要确定。该工程可能是单一功能的，或者包括两个或更多的功能。这是由项目制定的研究所确定的，其中通过估算以检验加入多于一个的工程功能的经济合理性。2) The locations of dams and reservoir sites will have been decided. This is done as the result of investigations of the site alternatives, usually in the reconnaissance phases of studies, but subject to possible changes and corrections in later stages. The site selections will have been made by evaluating the physical characteristics of each site, making comparative estimates of costs and potential accomplishments for each site that would be adaptable to a project plan. Consideration will also have been given to whether one site, or set of sites, would have important and possibly overriding advantages or disadvantages to the next-best available alternative from environmental impact standpoints.2）大坝位置和水库地址要确定。这是坝址比选研究的结果，通常在研究的勘察阶段，但是受到可能后续阶段可能的变化和更正所影响。坝址选择将通过评估各个坝址的物理特性而进行，对每个适用于工程方案的坝址进行成本和潜在效果的对比估算。还要从环境影响的观点考虑，是否某个坝址或是一系列坝址对次好的可用选项有重要和可能占优的优点或缺点。3) The gross capacity of any storage reservoir will have been selected. This will have been done by (1) estimating the amount of sediment accumulation that will take place in the reservoir over its economic life period; (2) estimating the amount of inactive storage capacity needed to maintain a permanent minimum pool for fishery preservation, recreational value, and/or power plant minimum head; and (3) determining the justifiable amounts of active storage capacity for reservoir operation for the one or more project function. The amounts of active storage capacity will have been selected by the plan formulation procedures whereby costs and accomplishments are estimated for a range of reservoir sizes, benefit values assigned to the different kinds and variable amounts of accomplishments, and comparative economic evaluations made for the range of reservoir sizes. Again, consideration will have been given to whether there would be a serious adverse environmental impact if water was impounded higher than any critical elevation. 3）任意水库的总库容要确定。这将通过以下完成：（1）计算水库经济寿命中的泥沙淤积量；（2）估算需要维持为渔业保护、旅游价值和/或最小发电水头的死库容容量；以及（3）确定为满足一个或多个项目功能时水库运营有效库容的合理容量。有效库容量将会通过方案制定过程选择，其中会估算一些列的水库规模的成本和成果，将收益值分配给不同种类和不同数量的成果，并对水库规模大小进行经济评估比选。此外，还要考虑如果水位被蓄积超过任意高度是否会有严重的不良环境影响。The final adoption of dam sites and sizes occurs after a project has been authorized and funded for construction. Some adjustments may be made to either sites or sizes provisionally selected by the feasibility investigation. The adjustments may be warranted by improvements in data collected for making final designs, or by any changes in project scope as required by financial and repayment considerations and limitations.工程被批准并投资建设后，坝址和规模被最终采纳。可行性研究暂时选定的坝址或规模可能会做出一些调整。这些调整可能通过用于最终设计所收集的数据，或通过由财务或还款考虑和限制所要求的工程范围变化来支撑。3. Investigation of Construction Materials3. 建筑材料的调查Investigations of construction materials are usually concerned with one of two questions: is there a sufficient quantity of a specified construction material available within a reasonable haul distance, or what construction materials are available in the area. The proper selection of the type of dam to be built at a site must include a careful evaluation of the construction materials determines the type of dam that can economically be considered at a given site.建筑材料的调查通常关心一两个问题：合理运距范围内是否有足量的特定种类的建筑材料？或该地区能够获得何种建筑材料？某个坝址处要建造坝型的选择必须有对决定坝型的建筑材料仔细的评估，这必须从经济方面考虑一个给定的坝址。An efficient investiga