Processing Instruction and Structured ppt课件.ppt

Chapter7,ProcessingInstructionandStructuredInput,1/94,Inthischapterweexplore:,ThenatureofinputprocessingProcessinginstruction:grammarinstructionthathasstructuredinputatitscoreResearchonprocessinginstructionthatdemonstratesitseffectivenessAsetofguidelinesfordevelopingstructuredinputactivities,2/94,Inputprocessing,Traditionalinstructionconsistingofdrillsinwhichlearneroutputismanipulatedandtheinstructionisdivorcedfrommeaningorcommunicationisnotaneffectivemethodforenhancinglanguageacquisition.Whatisneededisanewpedagogyofgrammarinstructionthattakesasitspointofdeparturewhatweknowabouthowgrammaticalformsandstructuresareacquired.Thispedagogyneedstoworkwithinputandwiththeprocesseslearnersusetogetdatafromthatinput.,3/94,Inputprocessing,Ofconcernisinputprocessing,howlearnersinitiallyperceiveandprocesslinguisticdatainthelanguagetheyhear.Ininputprocessing,learnersmightencountertheirfirstproblemsindealingwiththepropertiesofthenewlanguage.Wemustcometosomeunderstandingofwhatinputprocessinglookslike.,4/94,Intakefrominput,Inputprocessingisconcernedwiththosepsycholinguisticstrategiesandmechanismsbywhichlearnersderiveintakefrominput.Intakereferstothelinguisticdataintheinputthatlearnersattendtoandholdinworkingmemoryduringonlinecomprehension.,5/94,Form,Researchoninputprocessingattemptstoexplainhowlearnersgetformfrominputwhiletheirprimaryattentionisonmeaning.Formhereisdefinedassurfacefeaturesoflanguage,althoughinputprocessingisalsorelevanttosyntax.,6/94,Themostcompletemodel,VanPatten(1996,2003b)presentsthemostcompletemodelofinputprocessinginSLA.Theroleofworkingmemoryisimportantinthismodelsincesomeoftheprinciplesarepredicatedonalimitedcapacityforprocessing.Humansdevelopmechanismsthatallowthemtoselectivelyattendtoincomingstimuli.Withoutsuchmechanisms,therewouldbeinformationaloverload.,7/94,VanPattensPrinciples,Principle1(P1).ThePrimacyofMeaningPrinciple.Learnersprocessinputformeaningbeforetheyprocessitforform.P1a.ThePrimacyofContentWordsPrinciple.Learnersprocesscontentwordsintheinputbeforeanythingelse.P1b.TheLexicalPreferencePrinciple.Learnerswilltendtorelyonlexicalitemsasopposedtogrammaticalformtogetmeaningwhenbothencodethesamesemanticinformation.Example:Iwenttothestoreyesterday.,8/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P1c.ThePreferenceforNonredundancyPrinciple.Learnersaremorelikelytoprocessnonredundantmeaningfulgrammaticalformbeforetheyprocessredundantmeaningfulforms.Examples:Iwenttothestoreyesterday.(redundantpast)Iwenttothestore.(non-redundantpast),9/94,Principle1c,Inthisprinciple,“more”,“less”,and“nonmeaningful”refertothecommunicativevaluethatagrammaticalfeaturecontributestooverallsentencemeaning.Communicativevaluereferstothemeaningthataformcontributestooverallsentencemeaningandisbasedontwofeatures.+/-inherentsemanticvalue+/-redundancy,10/94,Communicativevalue,Aformthatcanbeclassifiedashavinginherentsemanticvalueandisnotaredundantfeatureoflanguage,willtendtohavehighcommunicativevalue.Forexample:InEnglishverbalmorphology,-ingtendstohavehighcommunicativevalue:1)Ithasinherentsemanticvaluebecauseitencodesprogressiveaspect(i.e.,-ing=inprogress)2)-ingtendstobehighincommunicativevaluebecauseitisseldomredundantinnaturallyoccurringdiscoursesincenolexicalinformationintheutteranceco-occurstoprovidecuestoaspect.,11/94,Natureofcommunicativevalue,Inordertograspthesemanticnotionof“inprogress”theL2learnerofEnglishmustprocesstheverbalinflectioningintheinput.Thenatureofcommunicativevalueisimportantforinputprocessing.Themorecommunicativevalueaformhas,themorelikelyitistogetprocessedandmadeavailableintheintakedataforacquisition(P1d).,12/94,Conversely,Thelesscommunicativevalueaformhas,themorelikelylearnersareto“skip”itintheinput.Forlearnerstoprocessformsoflittleornocommunicativevalueintheinput,theymustbeabletocomprehendanutterancesuchthattheactofcomprehensiondoesnottieupalltheirattentionalresources.,13/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P1d.TheMeaning-before-NonmeaningPrinciple.Learnersaremorelikelytoprocessmeaningfulgrammaticalformsbeforenonmeaningfulformsirrespectiveofredundancy.Example:Losgatosnegros.(masculinenon-meaningful)(plural“s”meaningful),14/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P1e.TheAvailabilityofResourcesPrinciple.Forlearnerstoprocesseitherredundantmeaningfulgrammaticalformsornon-meaningfulforms,theprocessingofoverallsententialmeaningmustnotdrainavailableprocessingresources(i.e.nooverloadofinformation).,15/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P1f.TheSentenceLocationPrinciple.Learnerstendtoprocessitemsinsentenceinitialpositionbeforethoseinfinalpositionandthoseinmedialposition.Forexample,learnersaremuchmorelikelytopickupquestionwordsandtheirsyntaxthanobjectpronounsorthesubjunctive,whichtendstooccurinsidethesentence.Example:Habloespaol.Yoquieroquethablesespaol.,16/94,AnexampleinFrench,Example:JeanfaitpromenerlechienMarie.(*Frenchcausative)Students:*JohnwalksthedogforMary.Correct:JohnmakesMarywalkthedog.(*Studentswillincorrectlyencode“Jean”asthesubjectofthesecondverbandthusdeliveringerroneousintaketotheirdevelopinglinguisticsystems.),17/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,Principle2.TheFirstNounPrinciple.Learnerstendtoprocessthefirstnounorpronountheyencounterinasentenceasthesubjectoragent.Example:AJuannolegustahelado.(*Studentswillincorrectlyencode“Juan”asthesubjectofthesentenceandthusdeliveringerroneousintaketotheirdevelopinglinguisticsystems.),18/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P2a.TheLexicalSemanticsPrinciple.Learnersmayrelyonlexicalsemantics,wherepossible,insteadofwordordertointerpretsentences.(seepreviousexamples),19/94,Wordorder,WordorderisimportantinInputprocessing.P2,thefirstnounprinciple,mayhaveimportanteffectsontheacquisitionofalanguagethatdoesnotfollowstrictsubject-verb-object(SVO)wordorder.,20/94,Erroneousinput,Researchhasshownthatlearnersdoindeedencodesuchpronounsandnounphrasesassubjects,thusdeliveringerroneousinputtotheirdevelopinglinguisticsystems.TheythinkthatJuanisthesubject.Itisnotthatmeaningisgottenelsewhere;itisthatmeaningisnotgottenatallorisgottenwrong.Theform-meaningconnectionsarenotonlyfiltered,theyarealtered.,21/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P2b.TheEventProbabilitiesPrinciple.Learnersmayrelyoneventprobabilities(i.e.whatsmorelikelytohappen),wherepossible,insteadofwordordertointerpretsentences.Forexample,fluentEnglishspeakerswouldassignthesemanticroleofagenttothehungerandtheroleofpatienttothelion:Thelionwaskilledbythehunter.ResearchhasshownthatlearnersofEnglishasanL2incorrectlyinterpretitas:Thelionkilledthehunter.,22/94,VanPattensPrinciplescontinued,P2c.TheContextualConstraintPrinciple.LearnersmayrelylessontheFirstNounPrincipleifprecedingcontextconstrainsthepossibleinterpretationofaclauseorsentence.(seepreviousexample),23/94,Summary,Researchoninputprocessingattemptstodescribe:WhatlinguisticdatalearnersattendtoduringcomprehensionWhichonestheydonotattendtoWhatgrammaticalroleslearnersassigntonounsHowpositioninanutteranceinfluenceswhatgetsprocessed.Intakeisgrammaticalinformationasitrelatestomeaningthatlearnershavecomprehended(orthinktheyhavecomprehended.),24/94,Areminder,Asareminder,inputprocessingisbutonesetofprocessesrelatedtoacquisition.ThatlearnersderivesomekindofintakefromtheinputdoesnotmeanthatthedatacontainedintheintakeautomaticallymaketheirwayintothedevelopingmentalrepresentationoftheL2inthelearnershead(i.e.,intakedoesnotequalacquisition).,25/94,Rethinkinggrammarinstruction:Structuredinput,Wenowhavesomeideaofwhatlearnersaredoingwithinputwhentheyareaskedtocomprehendit.Wecanbegintodevelopanewkindofgrammarinstruction-onethatwillguideandfocuslearnersattentionwhentheyprocessinput.,26/94,Processinginstruction,Processinginstructionconsistsofthreebasiccomponents:Learnersaregiveninformationaboutalinguisticstructureorform.Learnersareinformedaboutaparticularprocessingstrategythatmaynegativelyaffecttheirpickingupoftheformorstructureduringcomprehension.Learnersarepushedtoprocesstheformorstructureduringactivitieswithstructuredinput-inputthatismanipulatedinparticularwaystopushlearnerstobecomedependentonformandstructuredtogetmeaning.,27/94,Processing-orientedgrammarinstruction,InputIntakeDevelopingSystemOutputProcessingMechanismsFocusedPractice,28/94,Anexampleofrelatingprocessingstrategiestoinstruction:Verbmorphology,Weturntoactivitiesthatfocuslearnersattentiononverbendings;thegoalisforlearnerstousethesemorphologicalendingstocomprehendtenseratherthansolelyrelyonlexicalitems.Afterlearnersreceiveabriefexplanationofhowpast-tenseendingswork,theymightfirstpracticeattachingtheconceptofpasttimetoverbformsinanactivitysuchasthefollowing.,29/94,Listeningfortimereference,Listentoeachsentence.Indicatewhethertheactionoccurredlastweekorispartofasetofactionsorientedtowardthepresent.Johntalkedonthephone.Maryhelpedhermother.Robertstudiesfortwohours.SamwatchedTV.Lorivisitsherparents.,30/94,Structuringtheinput,Notethatonlytheveryendingencodestenseintheinputsentence.Lexicaltermsanddiscoursethatwouldindicateatimeframearenotpresent,therebyencouraginglearnerstoattendtothegrammaticalmarkersfortense.Theinputhasbeenstructured.,31/94,Anexampleofrelatingprocessingstrategiestoinstruction:Adjectiveagreement,Thistimewefocusonthefollowingstrategy:P1d.Learnersaremorelikelytoprocessmeaningfulgrammaticalformsbeforenonmeaningfulforms,irrespectiveofredundancy.Somefeaturesoflanguagedonothaveinherentsemanticorcommunicativevalue.,32/94,Forexample,IntheRomancelanguages,adjectivesmustagreeinnumberandgenderwiththenounstheymodify,butthisfeatureofgrammarcontributeslittleornothingtothemeaningoftheutteranceinmostcases.InthefollowingSpanish-languageactivity,learnersattentionisdirectedtowardproperadjectiveformbyataskinwhichtheadjectiveendingsmustbeattendedto.,33/94,Whoisit?,Listentoeachsentenceinwhichapersonisdescribed.Determinewhichpersonisbeingdescribedandthenindicatewhetheryouagreeordisagree.DavidLettermanMadonnaEsdinmica.(Shesdynamic.)Escomprensivo.(Hesunderstanding.)Esreservada.(Shesreserved.),34/94,Rememberthatlearnersapplyafirst-nounstrategytodeterminesubjectsandobjectsofsentences(“whodidwhattowhom”)WiththeFrenchcausative,thisleadstomisinterpretationandnonacquisition.Inthisactivity,learnersarepushedtoprocesscorrectly;tobesurethishappens,sentenceswiththenoncausativefaire(faireduski,“toski”)thatinvolvetwopeoplearealsoincluded.,Anexampleofrelatingprocessingstrategiestoinstruction:TheFrenchcausative,35/94,Whoisperforming?,Listentoeachsentence.Thenanswerthequestion.Whocleanstheroom?Whopacksthebags?TeachersscriptReadeachsentenceONCE.Aftereachsentence,askforananswer.ClaudefaitnettoyerlachambreRichard.(Structured)MarcfaitlesvalisespourJean.,36/94,Researchonprocessinginstruction,Therehasbeenongoingresearchregardingtheeffectivenessofprocessinginstruction.Animportantpartofthisresearchhasexaminedtherelativeeffectsofprocessinginstructionversusthoseoftraditionalinstruction.ThestudythatlaunchedthisresearchagendaisVanPattenandCadierno(1993).Itisthemostfrequentlycitedstudyandhasbeentheimpetusforanumberofreplicationstudies.,37/94,Researchquestions,VanPattenandCadiernosoughttoanswerthefollowingresearchquestions:Doesalteringthewayinwhichlearnersprocessinputhaveaneffectontheirdevelopingsystems?Ifthereisaneffect,isitlimitedsolelytoprocessingmoreinputordoesinstructionininputalsohaveaneffectonoutput?Ifthereisaneffect,isitthesameeffectthattraditionalinstructionhas(assuminganeffectforthelatter)?,38/94,Focusoftheresearch,VanPattenandCadiernocomparedthreegroupsoflearners:Aprocessinginstructiongroup(number=27)Atraditionalinstructiongroup(number=26)Acontrolgroup(number=27)Theprocessinggroupreceivedinstructionbasedalongthelinespresentedearlier.ThefocuswaswordorderandobjectpronounsinSpanish.,39/94,Whodidwhat,Intheprocessingtreatment,learnersfirstreceivedactivitieswithrightorwronganswers(“Selectthepicturethatbestgoeswithwhatyouhear”)followedbyactivitiesinwhichtheyofferedopinions.Inthetraditionalgroup,learnersreceivedinvolvingatypicalexplanationofobjectpronounsandthecompleteparadigmsoftheforms.Thecontrolgroupdidnotreceiveinstructiononthetargetstructureandinsteadreadanessayanddiscusseditinclass.,40/94,Assessment,Assessmentconsistedoftwotests:asentence-levelinterpretationtestandasentence-levelproductiontest.Thesewereadministeredasapretest,animmediateposttest,atwo-weekdelayedposttest,andafour-weekdelayedposttest.,41/94,Assessmentcontinued,Theinterpretationtestconsistedoftentargetitemsandtendistractors.Theproductiontestconsistedoffiveitemswithfivedistractors.Theinterpretationgroupwasbasedonanactivityperformedbytheprocessinggroup(“Selectthepicturethatbestgoeswithwhatyouhear.”)Theproductiontestwasbasedonanactivitythetraditionalgroupperformed(“Completethesentencebasedonthepicturesyousee.”),42/94,Results!,Thepretestsyieldednodifferencesamongthegroupsonthetwotestspriortotreatment.Intheposttestingphase,theprocessinggroupmadesignificantgainsontheinterpretationtestwhereasthetraditionalandcontrolgroupsdidnot.Ontheproductiontest,boththetraditionalandprocessinggroupsmadesignificantgainsbutwerenotsignificantlydifferentfromeachother.Thecontrolgroupdidnotmakesignificantgains.,43/94,Conclusions,Alteringthewaylearnersprocessinputcouldaltertheirdevelopingsystems.Theeffectsofprocessinginstructionarenotlimitedtoprocessingbutalsoshowuponproductionmeasures.Theeffectsofprocessinginstructionaredifferentfromthoseoftraditionalinstruction.,44/94,Twoforone,Bybeingpushedtoprocessformandmeaningsimultaneously,learnerswithprocessinginstructionnotonlycouldprocessbetterbutalsocouldaccesstheirnewfoundknowledgetoproduceastructurethatneverproducedduringthetreatmentstage.Membersofthetraditionalgrouplearnertodoatask,whilethemembersoftheprocessinggroupactuallyexperiencedachangeintheirunderlyingknowledgethatallowedthemtoperformondifferentkindsoftasks.,45/94,Areasforfutureresearch,Aretheeffectsofprocessinginstruction(PI)generalizabletootherstructures?AretheeffectsofPIduetodifferentexplicitinformation?AretheeffectsofPIobservablewithdifferentassessmenttasks?AretheeffectsofPIdifferentfromtheeffectsofothertypesofinstruction?DotheeffectsofPIholdovertime?,46/94,AretheeffectsofP1generalizabletootherstructures?,Cadierno(1995)replicatedtheVanPattenandCadiernostudyusingtheSpanishpreterite(past)tenseasthetargetstructure.Againcontrastingacontrolgroup,atraditionalinstruction(TI)group,andaprocessinginstruction(PI)group,Cadiernomeasuredtheeffectsoftreatmentviatwomeasures:Aninterpretationtest(Isthesentenceyourehearingpresent,past,orfuture?)Aproductiontest(writingsentencesinthepast),47/94,Results,CadiernosresultsmatchedthoseofVanPattenandCadiernoexactlyOntheinterpretationtest,thePIgroupimprovedsignificantly,buttheothertwogroupsdidnot.Ontheproductiontest,boththePIandTIgroupsimprovedsignificantlybutwerenotdifferentfromeachother.,48/94,Chengsstudy,Inherdissertation,Cheng(1995)conductedastudywithserandestar,thetwomajorcopularverbsinSpanish.Shecomparedacontrol,aprocessing,andatraditionalgroupintheuseofcopularverbswithadjectivesasthetarget.HerresultsmirroredthoseoftheoriginalVanPattenandCadiernostudy.,49/94,Farleysstudy,Inanotherstudy,Farley(2001a)demonstratedtheeffectsofPIontheSpanishsubjunctivewithnounclauses.InhisstudyheshowedthatparticipantswhoreceivedPImadesignificantgainsinbothinterpretationandproductionabilitieswiththesubjunctivebothinformanduse.,50/94,Bucksdissertation,Buck(2000)investigatedtherelativeeffectsofPIandTIintheacquisitionofthepresentcontinuous(versusthepresentprogressive)inEnglishbynativespeakersofSpanish.“Billissmokingapipe”versus“Billsmokesapipe.”Heresultsindicatedgreatergainsfortheprocessinggroupthatweremaintainedovertimeontheinterpretationtest.,51/94,VanPattenandWong,Inoneotherstudy,VanPattenandWong(2003)demonstratedthatPIwassuperiortoTIwiththeFrenchcausative.Theycomparedacontrol,aprocessing,andatraditionalgroupandmeasuredoutcomeswithaninterpretationandaproductiontest.Theirresultswerethesameastheresultsoftheoriginalstudy.,52/94,Acquisitionofverbalmorphology,Inanotherstudyinvolvingtheacquisitionofverbalmorphology,Benati(2001)comparedPI,TI,andacontrolgroupusingtheItalianfuturetenseasthetargetstructure.Hisresultsweresimilartobutnotthesameasthoseoftheoriginalstudy.Ontheinterpretationtask,thePIgroupimprovedsignificantly,theTIgroupdidaswell,andthecontrolgroupdidnot.However,thegainsmadebythePIgroupweresignificantlygreaterthanthoseoftheTIgroup.PITIC,53/94,AretheeffectsofPIduetodifferentexplicitinformation?,InVanPattenandOikennon(1996),theresearcherscomparedthreegroups.OnethatreceivedPIexactlyasintheoriginalVanPattenandCadiernostudy.Anotherthatreceivedthestructuredinputactivitiesonly,withnopriorexplicitinformationandnoexplanationduringtheactivitiesAnotherthatreceivedexplicitinformationonly,withnostructuredinputactivities.Theresearchersusedthesameassessmenttestsasintheoriginalstudy.,54/94,Results,Boththeregularprocessinggroupandthestructuredinput-onlygroupimprovedsignificantlybutwerenotdifferentfromeachother.TheeffectsofPIareduenottotheexplicitinformationprovidedtolearnersbuttotheparticularnatureofthestructuredinputactivities.,55/94,Computer-assistedlanguagelearning(CALL),SanzandMorgan-Short(2003)setouttotestwhetherexplicitfeedbackisnecessaryorhelpfultolearners.Theytestedfourgroupsusingthevariables+/-explanationand+/-explicitfeedback.Allgroups,regardlessofthecombinationsofthesevariables,receivedthesamestructuredinputaspractice.,56/94,Thegroups,Thefirstgroupwas+explanation(explicitinformationaboutthelanguageandhowtoprocessitintheinput)and+explicitfeedback(tellinglearnersnotonlywhetheranansweriscorrectornotbutwhattheproblemisiftheanswerisnotcorrect0Thesecondgroupwas-explanationand-explicitfeedback(learnersreceivedstructuredinputonly,withindicationsonlyofwhethertheiranswerswererightorwrong.,57/94,Thegroupscontinued,Thethirdgroupwas+explanationbut-explicitfeedback.Thefourthgroupwas-explanationbut+explicitfeedback.,58/94,Results,Theresultsshowedthatallgroupsimprovedsignificantlyonthethreeassessmenttasks(interpretationandtwoproductiontasks-asentence-completiontaskandavideo-retellingtask)frompre-toposttests.Theresearchersfoundthatnogroupwasbetterthananyotheronanytask.Neitherexplicitinformationnorexplicitfeedbackseemedtobecrucialforachangeinpe