Chap收入与歧视(经济学原理,曼昆,中英文双语).ppt

,EarningsandDiscrimination收入与歧视,Chapter19,DifferencesinEarningsintheU.S.Today当前美国的收入差距,Thetypicalphysicianearnsabout$200,000ayear.普通医生一年赚到20万美元左右。Thetypicalpoliceofficerearnsabout$50,000ayear.普通警官一年赚到5万美元左右。Thetypicalfarmworkerearnsabout$20,000ayear.普通农业工人一年赚到2万美元左右。,Whatcausesearningstovarysomuch?什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？,Wagesaregovernedbylaborsupplyandlabordemand.工资由劳动供给与劳动需求决定。Labordemandreflectsthemarginalproductivityoflabor.劳动需求反映了劳动的边际生产率。,Whatcausesearningstovarysomuch?什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？,Inequilibrium,eachworkerispaidthevalueofhisorhermarginalcontributiontotheeconomysproductionofgoodsandservices.在均衡时，每个工人都得到了他对经济中物品与劳务生产的边际贡献的价值。,SomeDeterminantsofEquilibriumWages决定均衡工资的若干因素,Compensatingdifferentials补偿性差别工资Humancapital人力资本Ability,effort,andchance能力、努力和机遇Signaling信号Thesuperstarphenomenon超级明星现象,CompensatingDifferentials,Compensatingdifferentialsrefertodifferencesinwagesthatarisesfromnonmonetarycharacteristicsofdifferentjobs.Coalminersarepaidmorethanotherswithsimilarlevelsofeducation.Nightshiftworkersarepaidmorethandayshiftworkers.Professorsarepaidlessthanlawyersanddoctors.,补偿性差别工资,补偿性差别工资是指不同工作的非货币特性所引起的工资差别。煤矿工人得到的工资高于其他有相似教育水平的工人。夜班工人的工资高于同类白班工人。教授的工资低于受教育时间大致相同的律师和医生。,HumanCapital人力资本,Humancapitalistheaccumulationofinvestmentsinpeople.人力资本对人的教育和在职培训投资的积累。Themostimportanttypeofhumancapitaliseducation.最主要的人力资本是教育。,HumanCapital,Educationrepresentsanexpenditureofresourcesatonepointintimetoraiseproductivityinthefuture.Bytheyear2000,amanwithacollegedegreeearnedmorethan89percentmorethanwithoutone.Womenshoweda70percentincreaseinearningsduetoacollegedegree.,人力资本,教育代表着为了提高未来生产率而在某一时点的资源支出。2000年，一个有大学学位的男人的平均收入比没有大学学位的男人多89。对于妇女来说，上大学的报酬高出70。,Table1AverageAnnualEarningsbyEducationalAttainment,Copyright2004South-Western,表1.受教育者的平均年收入,Copyright2004South-Western,1980年,2000年,男人高中，未上大学36430美元36770美元大学毕业52492美元69421美元大学水平的额外百分点44+89%,妇女高中，未上大学14953美元17898美元大学毕业23170美元35431美元大学水平的额外百分点55+98%,注释：收入数据根据通货膨胀进行了调整，并用2000年美元表示。,Whyhasthegapinearningsbetweenskilledandunskilledworkersriseninrecentyears?,Internationaltradehasalteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.Changesintechnologyhavealteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.,为什么近年熟练工人与非熟练工人之间的收入差距扩大了呢？,国际贸易改变了对熟练劳动与非熟练劳动的相对需求。技术变革改变了熟练劳动与非熟练劳动的相对需求。,Ability,Effort,andChance,Naturalabilityisimportantforworkersinalloccupations.Manypersonalcharacteristicsdeterminehowproductiveworkersareand,therefore,playaroleindeterminingthewagestheyearn.,能力、努力和机遇,对所有职业的工人来说，天赋能力都是重要的。许多个人特点决定了工人的劳动生产率，因此这些特点在决定工人所挣得的工资水平上起着重要作用。,AnAlternativeViewofEducation:Signaling教育的另一种观点：信号,Firmsuseeducationalattainmentasawayofsortingbetweenhigh-abilityandlow-abilityworkers.企业把教育状况作为区分高能力工人与低能力工人的一种方法。Itisrationalforfirmstointerpretacollegedegreeasasignalofability.企业把大学学位解释为能力的信号是合理的。,TheSuperstarPhenomenon,Superstarsariseinmarketsthatexhibitthefollowingcharacteristics:Everycustomerinthemarketwantstoenjoythegoodsuppliedbythebestproducer.Thegoodisproducedwithatechnologythatmakesitpossibleforthebestproducertosupplyeverycustomeratalowcost.,超级明星现象,超级明星产生在有两个特点的市场上：市场上每位顾客都想享受最优生产者提供的物品。使最优生产者以低成本向每位顾客提供物品成为可能的是生产这种物品所用的技术。,Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages,Whyaresomeworkerswagessetabovethelevelthatbringssupplyanddemandintoequilibrium?Minimum-wagelawsMarketpoweroflaborunionsEfficiencywages,高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资,为什么一些工人的工资确定在高于使劳动供求均衡的水平上？最低工资法工会的市场势力效率工资,Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages,UnionsAunionisaworkerassociationthatbargainswithemployersoverwagesandworkingconditions.StrikeAstrikereferstotheorganizedwithdrawaloflaborfromafirmbyaunion.,高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资,工会工会与雇主谈判工资和工作条件的工人协会。罢工罢工工会有组织地从企业撤出劳动。,Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages,EfficiencyWagesThetheoryofefficiencywagesholdsthatafirmcanfinditprofitabletopayhighwagesbecausedoingsoincreasestheproductivityofitsworkers.Highwagesmay:reduceworkerturnover.increaseworkereffort.raisethequalityofworkersthatapplyforjobsatthefirm.,高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资,效率工资效率工资认为，企业会发现支付高工资是有利的，因为这样做提高了工人的生产率。高工资会:减少工人的流动性；提高工人的努力程度；提高适应企业的工人素质。,TheEconomicsofDiscrimination,Discriminationoccurswhenthemarketplaceoffersdifferentopportunitiestosimilarindividualswhodifferonlybyrace,ethnicgroup,sex,age,orotherpersonalcharacteristics.,歧视经济学,当市场向那些仅仅是种族、宗教、性别、年龄或其他个人特征不同的相似个人提供了不同的机会时，就出现了歧视。,TheEconomicsofDiscrimination歧视经济学,Althoughdiscriminationisanemotionallychargedtopic,economiststrytostudythetopicobjectivelyinordertoseparatemythfromreality.虽然歧视是一个经常引起激烈争论的情绪化话题，但经济学家力图客观地研究这个题目，以便把假象与真实分开。,MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量,Discriminationisoftenmeasuredbylookingattheaveragewagesofdifferentgroups.常常通过观察不同群体的平均工资差别来衡量劳动市场上的歧视程度。,MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量,Eveninalabormarketfreeofdiscrimination,differentpeoplehavedifferentwages.即使在一个没有歧视的劳动市场上，不同人的工资也不同。,MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量,Peopledifferintheamountofhumancapitaltheyhaveandinthekindsofworktheyarewillingandabletodo.人们拥有的人力资本量以及能够并愿意从事的工作种类不同。,MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量,Simplyobservingdifferencesinwagesamongbroadgroupswhiteandblack,menandwomensayslittleabouttheprevalenceofdiscrimination.简单地观察不同群体白人与黑人、男人与女人之间的工资差别并没有说明歧视的普遍性。,Table2MedianAnnualEarningsbyRaceandSex,Copyright2004South-Western,Table2.不同种族与性别的平均收入,Copyright2004South-Western,男人38870美元30403美元22女人28080美元25107美元11女人工资低2817（百分比）注释：2000年数据。,白种人黑种人黑种人收入低（百分比）,MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination,Becausethedifferencesinaveragewagesamonggroupsinpartreflectdifferencesinhumancapitalandjobcharacteristics,theydonotbythemselvessayanythingabouthowmuchdiscriminationthereisinthelabormarket.,劳动市场歧视的衡量,由于不同群体之间平均工资的差别部分反映了人力资本和工作特性的差别，这些差别本身对劳动市场上有多大歧视并没有说明什么。,DiscriminationbyEmployers雇主的歧视行为,Firmsthatdonotdiscriminatewillhavelowerlaborcostswhentheyhiretheemployeesdiscriminatedagainst.当不进行歧视的企业雇佣受歧视的雇员时，这些企业的劳动成本更低。,DiscriminationbyEmployers雇主的歧视行为,Nondiscriminatoryfirmswilltendtoreplacefirmsthatdiscriminate.不进行歧视的企业取代了进行歧视的企业。,DiscriminationbyEmployers,Competitivemarketstendtolimittheimpactofdiscriminationonwages.Firmsthatdonotdiscriminatewillbemoreprofitablethanthosefirmsthatdodiscriminate.,雇主的歧视行为,竞争性市场倾向于限制歧视对工资的影响。不进行歧视的企业将比进行歧视的企业更具有赢利性。,DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernments,Althoughtheprofitmotiveisastrongforceactingtoeliminatediscriminatorywagedifferentials,therearelimitstoitscorrectiveabilities.CustomerpreferencesGovernmentpolicies,顾客与政府的歧视行为,虽然利润动机是消除歧视性工资差别的一种强大力量，但也存在着针对这种力量的矫正能力的限制。顾客偏好政府政策,DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernments,Customerpreferences:Ifcustomershavediscriminatorypreferences,acompetitivemarketisconsistentwithadiscriminatorywagedifferential.Thiswillhappenwhencustomersarewillingtopaytomaintainthediscriminatorypractice.,顾客与政府的歧视行为,顾客偏好:如果顾客有歧视偏好，竞争性企业就与歧视性工资差别相一致。这种情况只有在顾客愿意为他们的歧视性行为付出代价时才会发生。,DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernments顾客与政府的歧视行为,Governmentpolicies:Whenthegovernmentmandatesdiscriminatorypracticesorrequiresfirmstodiscriminate,thismayalsoleadtodiscriminatorywagedifferentials.政府政策：当政府命令实行歧视性作法或者要求企业进行歧视时，将会导致歧视性工资差别。,TheDebateOverComparableWorth关于同工同酬的争论,Accordingtothedoctrineofcomparableworth,jobsdeemedcomparableshouldbepaidthesamewage.根据同工同酬学说，可以相比的工作应该得到相同的工资。,TheDebateOverComparableWorth关于同工同酬的争论,Advocatesofcomparableworthwantjobstoberatedaccordingtoasetofimpartialcriteriasuchaseducation,experience,responsibility,workingconditions,andsoon.同工同酬的支持者根据一套客观的标准教育、经验、责任、工作条件等等来评价工作。,TheDebateOverComparableWorth关于同工同酬的争论,Criticsofcomparablewortharguethatacompetitivemarketisthebestmechanismforsettingwages.同工同酬的批评者认为，竞争市场是决定工资的最好机制。,Summary,Workersearndifferentwagesformanyreasons.Tosomeextent,wagedifferentialscompensateworkersforjobattributes.Workerswithmorehumancapitalgetpaidmorethanworkerswithlesshumancapital.,小结,工人由于许多原因而赚到不同的工资。在某种程度上，工资差别是对工人工作性质的补偿。人力资本多的工人得到的工资高于人力资本少的工人。,Summary小结,Thereturntoaccumulatinghumancapitalishighandhasincreasedoverthepastdecade.累积的人力资本的收益是高的，而且在过去的十年里一直在增加。Thereismuchvariationinearningsthatcannotbeexplainedbythingseconomistscanmeasure.有许多收入差别不能用经济学家可以衡量的事情来解释。,Summary,Theunexplainedvariationinearningsislargelyattributabletonaturalability,effort,andchance.Someeconomistsarguethatmore-educatedworkersearnh