Unit7西方文化导论ppt课件.ppt

U7_main,GetStarted,TextStudy,SupplementaryResources,Unit7,CultureDuringtheEnlightenment,1,GetStarted_main,GetStarted,1.AGeneralIntroduction,2.FocusIn,2,GetStarted_1.1,GetStarted,3,GetStarted_1.2,GetStarted,TheEnlightenment,aperiodinEuropeanhistory,occurredduringthe18thcentury.ThisperiodisalsoknownastheAgeofReason.TheEnlightenmentwasatimeofawakeningofpolitical,social,andeconomicthought.TheideasoftheEnlightenmentoriginatedinFranceandeventuallyspreadthroughoutmuchofEuropeandintotheNorthAmericancoloniesofBritain.TheseideashelpedlaythephilosophicalfoundationsfortheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.TheEnlightenmentdevelopedoutoftheworksof17th-centurythinkerssuchasIsaacNewton,RenDescartes,andJohnLocke.Abeliefinthesupremacyofreasonwasthechief,4,GetStarted_1.3,GetStarted,characteristicoftheEnlightenment.ThinkersoftheEnlightenmentbelievedthatthroughtheuseofreason,peoplecouldlearnhumanitystruenatureandusethisknowledgetoestablishaperfectsociety.AnotherhallmarkoftheEnlightenmentwasanenduringbeliefinthescientificmethod,rationalism,andtheexistenceofunchangeablenaturallaws.ManyofthewritingsoftheEnlightenmentchallengedtheacceptedpoliticalideasandreligiousbeliefsofthetime,includingtheconceptthatmonarchsreceivetheirrighttoruledirectlyfromGod.,5,GetStarted_1.4,GetStarted,TheforemostfiguresintheEnlightenmentwereagroupofFrenchthinkersknownasphilosophers.Thepreeminentmemberofthisgroupwasthewriter,historian,andpoetVoltaire.HeemergedastheEnlightenmentschiefcriticofcontemporarycultureandreligion.AnotherimportantmemberofthisgroupwasJeanJacquesRousseau,whosewritingsgreatlyinfluencedthepoliticalthinkingofthetime.AlsoinfluentialwerethewritingsofCharles,BarondeMontesquieu,whochallengedtheideaofrulebyamonarchandchampionedindividualfreedom.ThephilosopherDenisDiderot,incollaborationwithJeanDAlembert,plannedandeditedamultivolumeencyclopediadesignedtoincludeallrealmsofknowledge.Manyoftheentrieswerewrittenbyotherphilosophies.,6,GetStarted_1.5,GetStarted,Itwasundersuchpolitical,economicandintellectualcircumstancesthattheEnlightenmentbegantobeseeninFranceasanunprecedentedlyintellectualandculturalmovement.ItsinfluencewastobeperceivedlaterintheFrenchRevolution,theAmericanWarofIndependence,andeveninChinasMay4thMovementofNewCultureintheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury.,7,GetStarted_2.1,GetStarted,TogetabriefviewofthesocialandtheologicalbackgroundoftheEnlightenmentTogettoknowmajorrepresentativefiguresoftheEnlightenmentandtheirideasTounderstandthefeaturesoftheEnlightenmentanditssignificance,8,TextStudy_main,TextStudy,TextStudy,I.Background,II.EmpiricistInfluencesfromBritain,III.RepresentativeFiguresoftheEnlightenmentandTheirIdeas,IV.LiteratureduringtheEnlightenment,V.AReflectionontheEnlightenmentandItsSignificance,9,TheEnlightenmentisgenerallyagreedtohaveoriginatedinFrance.ItwasduetothefactthatFrancemetwithaperiodofdeclineafteritsnationalprosperityduringthereignofLouisXIV,whichwasdemonstratedbythesharpeningclassclashesandsocialcrisesresultingfromthedeterioratingpoliticalandeconomicconditions.Internationally,FrancealsosufferedaseriesofsetbacksinitscompetitionwithotherEuropeanpowers,suchasBritainwhenthelatterwasmarchingsteadilyonitswaytowardsadominatingpositionfollowingtheGloriousRevolutionin1688.ThesituationwasworsenedbyFrancesfiscaldeficitsandeconomicdifficulties,causedbyheavy,TextStudy_I_1.1,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,10,TextStudy_I_1.2,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,heavytaxationandfrequentfamines,whichmadepeasantsandpoorcitizensriseupinrevoltagainsttheroyalgovernment.DuringLouisXVsreign,FrancewitnessedviolentresistancebythepoortocruelexploitationandoppressionandsuccessivedefeatsinthewarswithAustria,RussiaandPrussiainthemiddleofthe18thcentury.ThesewarscostFrancethelossofmostofhercoloniesinAsiaandNorthAmerica.InadditiontherewasherfailureatsearesultingtotheBritishdominationandlossofhertraditionalnavaladvantage.,11,TextStudy_I_1.3,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,Inthiscriticalsituation,therewasnootherchoicebutapoliticalreform.Asthewholesituationworsened,themajorityoftheFrenchpopulation,peasantsandtheimpoverishedcitydwellersinparticular,sufferedbitterlyfromtheeconomicdeterioration,politicalinstability,socialchaosandculturalretrogressionandhencerespondedunhesitatinglytothebourgeoisiewhostronglydemandedthatthedeclinebecurbedandreformsbecarriedout.Undersuchcircumstances,someprogressiveintellectualsbegantothinkseriouslyandtriedtofindawayoutthroughsocialandpoliticalreformation.,12,Meanwhile,thedisseminationofscientificknowledgewasunderwaywiththedevelopmentofcapitalistproduction,whoseinfluencebegantomotivateandevokeabreathofenlightenmentandtheoreticalguidanceacrosstheEuropeancontinent,includingtheBritishempiricism,whichwaspickedupbyVoltaireandhiscontemporariesandhelpedtoeasetheFrenchintellectualtension.SincetheRenaissancetheintellectualclimateinFrancehadgreatlyimproved.Manyofthepeoplewerebettereducatedandmoreknowledgeableaboutscience.Theyhadhad,TextStudy_I_1.4,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,13,TextStudy_I_1.5,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,becomemoreawareofthepracticalsignificanceofscienceandtechnology,andthisalteredtheirtraditionalviewsofdailylifeaswellastheirculturalandsocialaffairs.TheresultsofthescientificresearchofCopernicus,GalileoandNewtonwerepassedonquicklythroughaccesstobooks,newspapersandjournalsresultingfromtheinventionofprinting.Thisgreatlyinformedandaffectedthepublicwhoseculturaltasteandpoliticalviewpointswerethusmodifiedtothenewintellectualclimate.Graduallytheygaveuptheirreligiousandmetaphysicalmodesofreasoningandadoptedanewoutlookwithamoreprogressiveandscientificbasis.,14,TextStudy_I_2.1,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,Prussia普鲁士：AGermankingdomandhistoricstateoriginatingoutoftheDuchyofPrussiaandtheMargraviateofBrandenburg.PrussiashapedthehistoryofGermany,withitscapitalinBerlinafter1451.After1871,PrussiawasincreasinglymergedintoGermany,losingitsdistinctiveidentity.Itwaseffectivelyabolishedin1932,andofficiallyabolishedin1947.Prussiaachieveditsgreatestimportanceinthe18thand19thcenturies.Duringthe18thcentury,itbecameagreatEuropeanpowerunderthereignofFredericktheGreat(17401786).Duringthe19thcentury,ChancellorOttovonBismarckunitedtheGermanprincipalitiesintoa“LesserGermany”whichwouldexcludetheAustrianEmpire.,15,TextStudy_I_2.2,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,16,TextStudy_I_2.3,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,TheBritishGloriousRevolution光荣革命:AlsocalledtheRevolutionof1688ortheBloodlessRevolution,itwastheoverthrowofKingJamesIIofEnglandin1688byaunionofParliamentarianswithaninvadingarmyledbyWilliamofOrangefromHollandwhosubsequentlyascendedtheEnglishthronetogetherwithhiswifeMaryII,asthejointrulerofEngland.ItcanbearguedthatJamessoverthrowinitiatedmodernEnglishparliamentarydemocracy:neveragainwouldthemonarchholdabsolutepower,andtheBillofRightsbecameoneofthemostimportantdocumentsinthepoliticalhistoryofBritain.,17,TextStudy_I_2.4,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,Britain.ThedepositionoftheRomanCatholicJamesIIendedanychanceofCatholicismbecomingre-establishedinEngland,andalsoledtolimitedtolerationfornonconformistProtestants,thusensuringtheProtestantsuccession.,18,TextStudy_I_2.5,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,Empiricism经验主义:Theuseofexperienceorexperimentsasthebasisforyourideasorthebeliefinthesemethods.Inphilosophy,empiricismisatheoryofknowledgewhichassertsthatknowledgearisesfromexperience.Empiricismemphasizestheroleofexperienceandevidence,especiallysensoryperception,intheformationofideas,whilediscountingthenotionofinnateideas.Inthephilosophyofscience,empiricismemphasizesthoseaspectsofscientificknowledgethatarecloselyrelatedtoevidence,especiallyasdiscoveredinexperiments.,19,TextStudy_I_2.5,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,experiments.Itisafundamentalpartofthescientificmethodthatallhypothesesandtheoriesmustbetestedagainstobservationsofthenaturalworld,ratherthanrestingsolelyonapriorireasoning,intuition,orrevelation.Hence,scienceisconsideredtobemethodologicallyempiricalinnature.,20,TheEnlightenmentfirststartedin.Inthe17thcentury,Francebecamemorepowerfulineconomicandmilitaryachievementsduetothemeasuresandreformstakenby.Incentury,FrancelostitsinitialdominationattheseatoEngland.TheEnlightenmentwasinfluencedbyBritishanddisseminationof.WiththeworseningsituationofFrancein18thcentury,moreandmorepeople,ledbynewlyemergingstronglydemandedforpoliticalreforms.,TextStudy_I_3.1,TextStudy,ComprehensionExercises,Fillintheblanks.,(1)(2)(3)(4)(5),ComprehensionExercises,France,_,LouisXIV,_,18th,_,empiricism,_,scientificknowledge,_,Bourgeoisie,_,21,TextStudy_I_4.1,TextStudy,ThinkandDiscuss,PleasegiveanaccountofthesettingoftheEnlightenment.,ThefactthattheEnlightenmentfirstoccurredinFrancewasascribedtothedeteriorationineconomic,political,socialandculturalconditionsinthe18th-centuryFrance.TheFrenchpeoplestronglydemandedthatthedecliningsituationbearrestedandreformsbecarriedout.Undersuchcircumstances,progressiveintellectualsbegantothinkmoreseriouslyaboutthesolutionstothecrisesandtriedtoresorttointellectualand,ThinkandDiscuss,22,TextStudy_I_4.2,TextStudy,ThinkandDiscuss,ThinkandDiscuss,andsocialmeans.Thismovementalsoaskedformorepoliticalpowertothepeopleasthebourgeoisiejoinedinwithitseconomicsupportandthustheculturalmovementtinnedwithpoliticalcolourasabourgeoismark.Ontheotherhand,thedisseminationofscientificknowledgeandtheinfluencesofBritishempiricismalsoimmenselyheightenedintellectualandpoliticalawarenessofthepeopleingeneral.Thispreparedthepoliticalbasisofthebourgeoisrevolutiontofollow.,23,TextStudy_I_1.1_pop,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,24,TextStudy_I_1.2_pop,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,25,TextStudy_II_1.1,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,26,TextStudy_II_1.2,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,27,TextStudy_II_1.3,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,28,TextStudy_II_1.4,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,29,TextStudy_II_2.1,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,ThomasHobbes托马斯霍布斯(15881679):BritishphilosopherwhosefamousbookLeviathan(利维坦)in1651establishedthefoundationformostoftheWesternpoliticalphilosophyfromtheperspectiveofsocialcontracttheory.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,30,TextStudy_II_2.2,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,GottfriedWilhelmVonLeibniz莱布尼兹(16461716):Germanmathematicianandphilosopher.Inphilosophy,heismostlyrememberedforoptimism,i.e.hisconclusionthatouruniverseis,inarestrictedsense,thebestpossibleoneGodcouldhavemade.Hewas,alongwithRenDescartesandBaruchSpinoza,oneofthethreegreatest17th-centuryrationalists,buthisphilosophyalsolooksbacktothescholastictraditionandanticipatesmodernlogicandanalysis.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,31,TextStudy_II_2.3,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,RenDescartes笛卡尔(15961650):AhighlyinfluentialFrenchphilosopher,mathematician,scientist,andwriter.Descarteswasamajorfigurein17th-centurycontinentalrationalism,lateradvocatedbyBaruchSpinozaandGottfriedLeibniz,andopposedbytheempiricistschoolofthoughtconsistingofHobbes,Locke,Berkeley,andHume.Leibniz,SpinozaandDescarteswereallwellversedinmathematicsaswellasphilosophy,andDescartesandLeibnizcontributedgreatlytoscienceaswell.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,32,TextStudy_II_2.4,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,ImmanuelKant康德(17241804):An18th-centuryGermanphilosopher.HeisregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialthinkersofmodernEuropeandofthelateEnlightenment.,33,TextStudy_II_2.5,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,Phenomenalism现象学:Theviewthatphysicalobjectsdonotexistasthingsinthemselvesbutonlyasperceptualphenomenaorsensorystimuli(e.g.redness,hardness,softness,sweetness,etc.)situatedintimeandinspace.Inparticular,phenomenalismreducestalkaboutphysicalobjectsintheexternalworldtotalkaboutbundlesofsense-data.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,34,TextStudy_II_2.6,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,AugusteComte孔德(17981857):AFrenchthinker,widelyregardedasthefirstsociologist.Hedevelopeda(secularreligion)socialtheoryknownaspositivism,whichemphasizesreasonandlogic.Comtealsofoundedthesocialsciences.HeandotherearlysocialscientistsassumethathumanbehaviormustobeylawsjustasstrictlyasmaterialobjectsobeyNewtonsLawsofMotion,andthatifwecoulddiscoverthelawsofhumanbehaviours,wecouldeliminatemoralevils.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,35,TextStudy_II_2.7,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,Positivism实证主义:Thephilosophythattheonlyauthenticknowledgeisonebasedonactualsenseexperience.Suchknowledgecanonlycomefromtheaffirmationoftheoriesthroughstrictscientificmethodtosuggestthatmetaphysicalspeculationshouldbeavoided.ItwasdevelopedbyAugusteComteinthemiddleofthe19thcentury.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,36,TextStudy_II_2.8,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,JeremyBentham杰里米边沁(17481832):AnEnglishjurist,philosopher,andlegalandsocialreformer.HeheldsomeradicalpoliticalideasasaleadingtheoristinAnglo-Americanphilosophyoflaw.Hewasbestknownforhisadvocacyofutilitarianism,hisconceptofanimalrights,andhisoppositiontotheideaofnaturalrights.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,37,TextStudy_II_2.9,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,JohnStuartMill约翰穆勒(18061875):Britishphilosopher,politicaleconomist,civilservantandMemberofParliament,aninfluentialliberalthinkerofthe19thcentury.Hewasanexponentofutilitarianism,anethicaltheoryinitiatedbyJeremyBentham,althoughhisconceptionofthetheorywasverydifferentfromthelatter.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,38,TextStudy_II_2.10,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,Utilitarianism功利主义:Theideathatthemoralworthofanactionissolelydeterminedbyitscontributiontooverallutility,thatis,itscontributiontohappinessorpleasureasissummedupamongallpersons.Itisthusaformofconsequentialism,meaningthatthemoralworthofanactionisdeterminedbyitsoutcometheendsjustifythemeans.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,39,TextStudy_II_3.1,TextStudy,ComprehensionExercises,Trueorfalsequestions.,ComprehensionExercises,(1)Lockerejectstheideaofinnateknowledgeandarguesfortheacquisitionofknowledgefromthesenses.(2)ThelateRenaissancefocusedonthemetaphysicalandrationalistphilosophy,whiletheEnlightenmentwasbasedonepistemologyandempiricism.(3)Lockerejectedthedivisionoflegislativepowerandadministrativepower.(4)Berkeleywasthefatherofaphilosophicalschoolcalledphenomenalism.(5)HumesempiricistphilosophygreatlyinfluencedImmanuelKantscriticalphilosophy.,T,_,T,_,T,_,F,_,T,_,40,TextStudy_II_4.1,TextStudy,ThinkandDiscuss,GiveabriefintroductiontoLockeslife,ideasandgreatworks.,JohnLocke(16321704)wasaBritishphilosopher,Oxfordacademicandmedicalresearcher,whoseassociationwithAnthonyAshleyCooper(latertheFirstEarlofShaftesbury)ledhimtobecomesuccessivelyagovernmentofficialcollectinginformationabouttradeandcolonies.Hewasalsoaneconomicwriter,oppositionalpoliticalactivist,andfinallyarevolutionarywhosecauseultimatelytriumphedintheGloriousRevolutionof1688.MuchofLockesworkischaracterizedbyoppositiontoauthoritarianism.Thisoppositionisonthelevelofboththeindividual,ThinkandDiscuss,41,individualandtheinstitutionssuchasgovernmentandchurch.Fortheindividual,Lockewantseachofustoseektruthbyreasoningratherthansimplyaccepttheopinionofauthorities.Onthelevelofinstitutionsitbecomesimportanttodistinguishthelegitimatefromtheillegitimatefunctionsofinstitutionsandtomakethecorrespondingdistinctionfortheusesofforcebytheseinstitutions.ThepositivesideofLockesanti-authoritarianismisthatusingreasontograspthetruthanddeterminingthelegitimatefunctionsofinstitutionswilloptimizetheindividualandsocietyinrespecttoitsmaterialandspiritualwelfare.This,inturn,amountstofollowingnaturallawandthefulfillmentofthedivinepurposeforhumanity.LockessignificantAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding,TextStudy_II_4.2,TextStudy,ThinkandDiscuss,ThinkandDiscuss,42,TextStudy_II_4.3,TextStudy,ThinkandDiscuss,UnderstandingdealswiththelimitsofhumanunderstandingofGod,theself,naturalbeingsandartifacts,aswellasdifferentkindsofideas.Ittellsusindetailwhatonecanlegitimatelyclaimtoknowandwhatonecannot.Lockealsowroteavarietyofimportantpolitical,religiousandeducationalworksincludingTwoTreatisesofGovernment,LettersConcerningToleration,TheReasonablenessofChristianityandSomeThoughtsConcerningEducation.,ThinkandDiscuss,43,TextStudy_II_1.1_pop,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,44,TextStudy_II_1.2_pop,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,45,TextStudy_II_1.3_pop,TextStudy,MainIdeas,MainIdeas,46,TextStudy_III_1.1.1,MainIdeas,TextStudy,MainIdeas,47,TextStudy_III_1.1.2,MainIdeas,TextStudy,MainIdeas,48,TextStudy_III_1.1.3,MainIdeas,TextStudy,MainIdeas,49,TextStudy_III_1.1.4,MainIdeas,TextStudy,MainIdeas,50,TextStudy_III_1.1.5,MainIdeas,TextStudy,MainIdeas,51,TextStudy_III_2.1,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,TextStudy,theIndexLibrorumProhibitorum禁书目录：“ListofProhibitedBooks”alistofpublicationsprohibitedbytheRomanCatholicChurch.Theavowedaimofthelistwastoprotectthefaithandmoralsofthefaithfulbypreventingthereadingofimmoralbooksorworkscontainingtheologicalfallacies.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,52,TextStudy_III_2.2,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,TextStudy,JeanleRonddAlembert达兰贝尔(17171783):AFrenchmathematician,mechanician,physicistandphilosopher.Hewasalsotheco-editorwithDenisDiderotoftheEncyclopaedia.DAlembertsmethodforsolvingthewaveequationisnamedafterhim.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,53,TextStudy_III_2.3,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,TextStudy,Paul-HenriHolbach霍尔巴哈(17231789):AFrenchauthor,philosopherandencyclopedist.HewasbornPaulHeinrichDietrichinGermanybutlivedandworkedmainlyinParis.Heismostfamousforbeingoneofthefirstself-describedatheistsinEurope.,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,54,TextStudy_III_2.4,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,TextStudy,InterpretationofCulturalTerms,ClaudeAdrienHelvetius爱尔维修(17151771):AFrenchphilosopherwhopublishedhisphilosophicalmagnumopusDelesprit(OnMind)in1758.Itsatheistic,utilitarianandegalitariandoctrinesraisedapublicoutcryandHelvtiuswasforcedtoissueseveralretractions.,55,TextStudy_III_3.1,ComprehensionExercises,TextStudy,ComprehensionExer